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TGIENE 
T\ GIF^LS 

Florence Hartley F^idtjarcls M D 




DCHEATH & COMPANY 




Class W? ijg_ 

Book »K & 

Copyright}! 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



HYGIENE FOR GIRLS 

INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY 



BY 

FLORENCE HARVEY RICHARDS, M. D. 

MEDICAL DIRECTOR WILLIAM PENN HIGH SCHOOL; 



WOMAN S MEDICAL COLLEGE OF PENNSYLVANIA; 

FORMER INSTRUCTOR IN ORTHOPEDICS, 

POLYCLINIC HOSPITAL, PHILADELPHIA 



D. C. HEATH AND COMPANY 

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 






Copyright, 1913, by 

D. C. HEATH & CO. 

1H3 



©CI.A354835 



My Father and Mother 

WHOSE SELF-SACRIFICE AND ENCOURAGEMENT 
MADE POSSIBLE MY MEDICAL EDUCATION, 
THIS BOOK IS AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED 



INTRODUCTORY NOTE 

The last few years have witnessed a remarkable revolution 
against the old idea that it was the chief function of the school 
to impart a knowledge of many things. The newer conception 
of education emphasizes the necessity of developing habits that 
will bring out the best possibilities of the individual both physi- 
cally and mentally. 

Following this new belief in an education that really meets 
human needs has come an intense interest in the physical wel- 
fare of the individual and the community. So the old text-books 
with their exhaustive discussions of anatomy and physiology are 
disappearing, and their place is being taken by manuals that give 
the young the instruction most needed to enable them to build 
up normal, healthy lives. 

The present volume, I believe, furnishes an admirable basis 
for this instruction. It is founded on the author's successful 
experience as a physician, supplemented by her large knowledge 
of the actual demands of the class room. Her rare opportunity 
to know youth intimately in a school of over two thousand 
pupils, where she is looked upon as the mentor in all physical 
matters, has given her unusual fitness for the preparation of 
this admirable book. 

William D. Lewis. 
The William Penn High School, 

Philadelphia. 
June 27, 1013. 



PREFACE 

This text-book has for its foundation a series of lectures 
delivered to the freshman class of the William Penn High School 
for Girls. The author has always contended that the modern 
text-book on physiology contains too much physiology and not 
enough practical Hygiene. In the preparation of this book, 
therefore, just enough Anatomy and Physiology have been intro- 
duced to give the pupil a groundwork for the principles of 
Hygiene. When an extended course cannot be given in this 
subject, it is more desirable for pupils to know why milk is 
such a nourishing food, what shoes are hygienic and why, how 
to act in such emergencies as fainting, nose-bleed and drowning, 
how germs cause disease, and how to use disinfectants, than to 
acquire a mass of unnecessary information concerning the cir- 
culation of the blood, the coats of the stomach, the construction 
of the eye-ball or the arrangement of the various parts of the 
brain. The author has endeavored to apply information to the 
every-day life of the pupil and to correlate the laws of health 
with physiological facts. 

The effect of alcohol has been considered more from the socio- 
logical viewpoint than from that of the physician or moralist. 
Pupils are more interested in the relation of alcohol to wages and 
conditions, to unhappy homes and degenerate children, to 
crime and Juvenile Courts, than they are in the actual effects 
of alcohol on physical health. 

The chapter on emergencies will enable any pupil to act 
promptly and intelligently in those situations, which come un- 
expectedly to all, where instant knowledge of the proper 
thing to do may mean the saving of valuable lives. 

Patent medicines are used so generally throughout the United 
States that it was thought advisable to devote an entire chapter 
to the study of this subject. Only by educating the young 
to know the tremendous harm wrought by patent medi- 

vi 



PREFACE vii 

cines, the waste of money and the loss of valuable time in the 
treatment of disease, can we hope to materially lessen the 
consumption of nostrums and cure-alls 

Special attention has been given to the germ theory of disease, 
the modes of transmission of infectious diseases, and especially 
of their prevention. Pupils should know that typhoid fever 
is caused by a polluted water supply; that vaccination for 
smallpox and typhoid fever is beneficial and not harmful; that 
flies carry the germs of many diseases, and that it is a reproach 
to modern sanitation to allow such filthy insects access to our 
homes. A whole chapter is devoted to the study of tuber- 
culosis, the "great white plague," with special stress laid upon 
the necessity of early treatment and prevention. 

The need for instruction in sex hygiene in the schools is at 
present receiving widespread attention. While the author 
believes that such knowledge should be imparted primarily by 
parents, the regrettable fact remains that many parents are either 
ignorant themselves, or have a peculiar false modesty when 
called upon to teach their children the phenomena concerning 
the significance and health of the reproductive organs. In 
view of the fact that morals have their foundation in life 
processes and can be taught adequately only with reference to 
these processes and, moreover, that human life is governed 
by fixed laws, ignorance or transgression of w r hich is bound to 
bring swift and certain punishment, the duty of the educator 
in this respect can no longer be ignored. The author, there- 
fore, after much consideration and forethought, has added the 
chapter on the reproductive organs, with the hope that both 
teachers and pupils will accept it in the spirit in which it is 
written and profit by the instruction contained therein. 

This volume is arranged to cover about one year's instruction 
in the higher grammar grades or in the first year of High Schools. 
Many of the illustrations are new and have been gathered from 
original sources. 

Florence Harvey Richards. 
Philadelphia, Pa.. August, 1013. 



CONTENTS 

PART I. 
INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

PAGE 

I. — Introduction ...... i 

Anatomy. Physiology. Hygiene. Cells, Tissues, Organs, 
and Systems. Connective Tissue. Osseous or Bony Tissue. 
Cartilaginous Tissue. Muscular Tissue. Nervous Tissue. 
Epithelial Tissue. Nutritive Tissue. An Organ. A System. 

II. — The Muscular System .... 5 

Physiology of the Muscular System. The Muscles. Ner- 
vous Control of Muscles. Terminations of Muscles. Func- 
tions of Muscles. The Growth of Muscles. 

Hygiene of the Muscular System. The Value of Exercise. 
The Best Exercise. Fatigue. Massage. Caution. 

III. — The Osseous System or Bony Structure . 15 

Physiology of the Osseous System. Use of the Bones. The 
Skeleton. Composition of Bone. Gross Structure of Bone. 
Development of Bones. 

Hygiene of the Bony Structure. Rickets or Rachitis. 
Tuberculosis or Consumption of the Bones. Softness of 
Young Bones. Fractures. Curvature of the Spine. The 
Joints. Strains and Sprains. Rheumatism. 

IV. — The Excretory System . . . 23 

Physiology of the Excretory System. The Kidneys. The 
Bladder. The Skin. Automatic Preservation of Tempera- 
ture. 

Hygiene of the Excretory System. The Skin. Baths and 
Bathing. The Hot Bath. Results of the Hot Bath. 
Precautions. The Warm Bath. The Cold Bath. Precau- 
tions. Sea Bathing. Bather's Cramp. Care of the Ears 



CONTENTS k 

PAGE 

IV. — The Excretory System — Continued . .23 

while Bathing. Swimming. For Non-Swimmers. The 
Hair. The Shampoo. Baldness. To Improve Thin Hair. 
Pediculosis or Lice in the Hair. The Nails. 

Clothing. Uses of Clothing. Materials. Underclothes 
Outer Clothes. Dyes. Shoes. 

V. — The Digestive System .... 54 

Physiology of the Digestive System. The Mouth. The 
Tongue. The Teeth. Pharynx and (Esophagus. The Stomach. 
The Small Intestine. The Large Intestine. The Two Large 
Glands. The Digestion. The Pancreatic Juice. Peristalsis. 
Absorption. 

Hygiene of the Digestive System. Care of the Teeth. De- 
cay of the Teeth. Care of the Throat. Indigestion. Con- 
stipation. 

Food. Chemical Classification of Foods. The Proteids. 
The Carbo-Hydrates. Fats and Oils. Classification 
of Foods as to Kingdom. Meats. Parasites in Meat. 
Substitutes for Meat. Cereals. Bread. Vegetables. A 
Mixed Diet. Fruits. Nuts. Adulteration of Food. Cook- 
ing. Special Foods. Preservation of Food. Ptomaine or 
Food Poisoning. School Breakfasts and Luncheons. Over- 
weight. Underweight. Beverages. Milk. Diseases Con- 
veyed by Milk. Other Food Beverages. The Stimulating 
Beverages. 

VI. — The Circulatory System . . 94 

Physiology of the Circulatory System. Blood. Uses of 
the Blood. The Heart. The Arteries. The Capillaries. 
Circulation of the Blood. The Lymphatic System. 

Hygiene of the Circulatory System. The Quantity of Blood 
and its Distribution. Purification of the Blood. Disease of the 
Heart. Hemorrhage. Inflammation. Antitoxins, Vaccines, 
and Bacterins. 

VTI. — The Respiratory System .... 109 

Physiology of the Respiratory System. The Nose. The 
Pharynx. The Larynx. The Trachea. The Lungs. 

Hygiene of the Respiratory System. Healthy Lungs. 
Varieties of Breathing. Artificial Respiration. Natural Venti- 
lation of a Room. Modes of Ventilation. Forced Ventilation. 
Foul Air. Cellars. Heating. Fireplaces. Diseases of the 
Respiratory Tract. Colds. Prevention of Colds. Dust. 



X CONTENTS 

PAGE 

VIII.— The Nervous System 133 

Physiology of the Nervous System. The Brain. Nerves. 
The Spinal Cord. The Sympathetic System. Functions of 
Brain and Cord. 

Hygiene of the Nervous System. Habit. Fatigue. 
Amount of Sleep Necessary. Conditions Favorable to Sleep. 
Dreams. Rising. Drugs which Induce Sleep. Nervous- 
ness. Rules for the Nervous Person. Relaxation. The 
Senses. General Sensation. Headache. Remote Causes of 
Headache. Treatment of Headache. Special Sensation. 
Touch, or the Tactile Sense. Taste. Smell. Hearing. How 
Sound Is Heard. Care of the Ears. The Sight. The 
Eyeball. How We See. Care of the Eyes. 



IX. — Experiments .. . . . . . 165 

Cells. Foods. Skin. Digestive System. Digestion. 
Circulation. Respiratory System. Respiration. Air. Alcohol. 



PART II 
COMMUNITY HYGIENE 
I. — Disease and Germs ..... 173 

Disease. Germs. Microbes or Bacteria. Useful and 
Pathogenic Bacteria. How Disease Germs Enter the Body. 
How Germs May Be Killed. Typhoid Fever. Many Diseases 
are Carried by Insects. Malaria. Prevention of Malaria. 
Yellow Fever. The Canal Zone and Sanitation. The Great 
"Black" or Bubonic Plague. Pellagra. The Sleeping Sick- 
ness. Animal Parasites. Hydrophobia. Trichinosis. Un- 
cinariasis. 



II. — Tuberculosis . . . . . .189 

Tuberculosis. Causes which Favor. Parts of the Body 
Commonly Attacked. Symptoms. Duration of the Dis- 
ease. The Cure of Tuberculosis. Medicine of Minor Im- 
portance. Care of the Consumptive at Home. Preventive 
Methods. 



CONTENTS xi 



III. — Vaccination and Antitoxins . '. . 200 

Conditions Previous to Vaccination. Process of Vaccina- 
tion. Vaccination Against Typhoid Fever. Antitoxins. 



IV. — Narcotics 204 

Narcotics. Alcohol. Tobacco. Injurious Effects of To- 
bacco. Tobacco and Crime. Opium. Forms of Opium. 
The Opium Habit. Opium Poisoning. Chloral. Hasheesh. 
Chloroform. Cocaine. 



— Alcohol ....... 209 

How Alcohol is Produced. Distillation. Effects of Al- 
cohol on the Body. Alcohol as a Medicine. Alcohol as 
a Food. Children of Alcoholic Parents. Occupations which 
Tend to Induce Alcoholism. Relation of Alcoholism to 
Poverty and Crime. Loss to the State through Alcoholism. 



VI. — Patent Medicines . . 215 

Excessive Profits in Patent Medicines. The Worthless- 
ness of Patent Medicines. Testimonials. Harm Wrought 
by Patent Medicines. Harmful Drugs in Patent Medicines. 
Remedy for Patent Medicine Evil. 



VII. — Public Work ...... 221 

Lockjaw and the Fourth of July. Boards of Health. The 
Department of Street Cleaning. Quarantine Stations. Sana- 
toriums. Hospitals. 



VIII. — Emergencies . . . . . .225 

First Aid to the Injured. Fainting. Burns. Wounds. 
Bruises or Contusions. Hemorrhage. Sprains. Fractures 
or Broken Bones. Dislocations. Frostbite. Sunstroke. 
Heat Exhaustion. Drowning. Suffocation by Coal Gas. 
Intoxication. Bites of Animals. Bites of Poisonous Snakes. 
Choking. Croup. Fits or Convulsions. Poisons. 



xii CONTENTS 

PART III 
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 

PAGE 

Physiology of the Reproductive System . .237 

Sex Organs. Menstruation. Symptoms. The Flow. 
Care during the Period. Mental Work during Periods. Bath- 
ing during Periods. Sanitary Napkins. Public Water-Closets. 
A Bad Habit to Form. Scanty Menstruation. Painful Men- 
struation. Excessive Menstruation. Masturbation. Friend- 
ships. 

Index ■ 249 



HYGIENE FOR GIRLS 




A MICROSCOPE 



HYGIENE FOR GIRLS 

PART ONE 
INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

I.— INTRODUCTION. 

Anatomy is the science which treats of the actual struc- 
tures of the various parts of the body and their relations to 
each other. It explains the structure of the bones, muscles, 
blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics, and of the various 
organs of the body. A knowledge of anatomy is necessary 
in order to understand Physiology and Hygiene. 

Phys ology is the science which treats of the functions of 
various parts of the body, their properties and actions. It 
explains the circulation of the blood, the digestion of food, 
the process of breathing, the control of the brain and 
spinal cord over the muscles, etc. 

Hygiene is the science which treats of the preservation 
of health and the prevention of disease.. It explains why 
we should be clean in our persons, in our homes, and in our 
relations as a community. Hygiene also explains how to 
avoid infectious diseases, how to prepare our food properly, 
etc.. Health is wealth, and a sound mind is found only in a 
sound body. Sickness is expensive, and to know how to 
prevent it is worth thousands of dollars yearly to any State. 



2 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

Much illness in later life is due to indiscretions in youth. 
Huxley says, " Young people should so learn Physiology 
and Hygiene, and so understand their bodies, that they will 
heed the first sign of Nature's displeasure and not wait for a 
box on the ear." A proper understanding of the care of the 
body and the value of fresh air, pure food, exercise, and rest, 
will go a long way toward laying a substantial foundation 
for the making of strong, healthy, and happy citizens. 




Fig. i. — The amoeba, a 
one-celled animal. 



CELLS, TISSUES, ORGANS AND SYSTEMS 

Cells, Tissues, Organs and Systems. — A cell is the 
smallest particle of animal or vegetable matter. It eats 
and secretes, grows, moves, and reproduces. The amoeba 
is a good example of a one-celled an- 
imal. It is made up of a transparent, 
jelly-like substance called protoplasm, 
containing a speck called the nucleus, 
which is usually surrounded by a wall 
called the cell wall. 

Cells of one kind reproduce them- 
selves and finally 
form the various 
tissues of the 
body. These 
may be classified 
as connective, 
osseous or bony, 
cartilaginous, 
muscular, ner- 

Fig 2.— Steps in cell-division (after Wilson). Note that tne V0US, epithelial, 
process begins with the division of the attraction sphere, then , 

involves the nucleus and finally separates the main body. and nutnttve. 




CELLS, TISSUES, ORGANS AND SYSTEMS 



3 



Connective Tissue. — This is the most widely distributed 
of all the tissues. There are many varieties, the most 
common of which are the following: — 

Areolar: The groundwork of all organs. 
White fibrous: Long, tough threads which help to 
bind other tissues together. It is the chief part of tendonr , 
ligaments, etc. 

Adipose or fatty: Globular cells found under the skin. 
forming the fat and giving 
roundness to the outlines of 
the body. Under the eye- 
ball these globular cells act 
as a cushion. 

Osseous or Bony Tissue. — 
This is dense, hard material, 
forming bone. 

Cartilaginous Tissue. — 

_., . , , . ,. Fig. 3. — Stored-up fat. The illustrat: n 

IniS IS a SOmeWnat yielding shows four connective cells containing small 

tissue, not quite so hard as particles of fat - '• Nucleus - 2 - ProU - 

*■ plasm. 3. Fat. 4. Connective tissue fibres. 

bone, found in the joints at 

the ends of the long bones, in the ears and in the end of 

the nose. All bones have once been cartilage. 

Muscular Tissue. — This is the meat of the body. Muscle 
fibres are capable of contracting, thus making themselves 
shorter. 

Nervous Tissue. — The brain, the spinal cord, and nerves 
are formed of nervous tissue. 

Epfthelial Tissue. — This tissue covers the body and 
lines the alimentary canal and other tubes in the 
body. 




INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



Cramal_ J^JJ^?'*'^ 
CdVity fe2^ V >V>U; 



Thoracic 
cavity 



Nutritive Tissue. — 

This is a liquid tissue 
found in the blood and 
lymph. 

An organ consists of a 
group of tissues joined 
together for a special 
purpose. The heart, 
the lungs, the kidneys, 
the brain, are organs. 

A System. — A num- 
ber of organs associated 
together for a special 
purpose constitute a 
system. Examples: 
Digestive, circulatory, 
nervous, respiratory, 
muscular, osseous, ex- 
cretory and reproductive 
systems. All the sys- 
tems must be in perfect 
working order to insure 
good health. 

Any dislocation of, or 
functional disturbance 

Fig. 4. — Diagram of a lengthwise section of the 
body to show its large cavities and the organs in the Organs of any 
which they contain. .., 

one system will upset 
this perfect balance, and ill-health will result. 



Abdominal 
cavity 




II.— THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM 

The Muscles are the lean 
meat of the body. Their func- 
tion is to move the different 
parts of the body and to assist 
organs to perform their work. 
There are two kinds of muscles 
— voluntary and involuntary. 
Voluntary muscles are under 
the control of the will; as, the 
muscles of the arms and legs. 
Involuntary muscles are not 
under the control of the will; 
as, the heart muscle, the muscles 
controlling the digestive organs, etc. 

Nervous Control of Muscles. — 

Muscles are controlled by neroe 
impulses from the brain and spinal 
cord. When a muscle con- 
tracts, it becomes shorter and 
thicker. Under the micro- 
scope, voluntary muscles show 
cross markings, hence they 
are called striated or striped fibre 




Fig. 5 — The muscles of the body. 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



muscles. The involuntary muscles are spindle-shaped, and 
unstriped, or smooth. 

The heart fibres, though involuntary, are very short, 
thick, and striped, — an exception to the general rule. 

Terminations of Muscles. — Some muscles are attached 
directly to the bones, but the majority terminate in thick, 
glistening ends called tendons. These may pe felt at the 
back of the knee. Tendons attach the muscles to the bones 
and are smaller than the muscles, in order to save space. 

Functions of Muscles. — Muscles are named from their use, 

as: (i) Flexors 
and extensors: 
Limbs are 
bent by the 
fl e x o r s and 
straightened 
again by the 
extensors, 
(2) A bduct- 
ors and ad- 
ductors: The 
while the ad- 




Fig. 6. 



The muscl; that moves the forearm. Showing the change 
in the muscle when it causes motion. 



abductors raise and pull a limb outward 
ductors draw it toward the 
body again. 

(3) The sphincters or ring- 
like muscles: These sur- 
round certain openings; 
such as the mouth, the eye, 
and the end of the rectum 
or anus. 




Fig. 7. — The sphincter muscle of the eye. 



THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM 



The Growth of Muscles. — Muscles grow with. use. 
When they are properly exercised, an increased supply of 
blood flows to them, the cells are fed and multiply, and the 
muscles grow. If muscles are not used they become flabby 
and pale; if on the other hand, they are worked too 
hard, the cells do not have time to feed properly on the 
increased blood supply and their growth is stopped. 

HYGIENE OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM 

The Value of Exercise. — The contraction of muscles 
all over the body during vigorous exercise squeezes the 






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GYMNASIUM OF THE WILLIAM PENN HIGH SCHOOL FOR GIRLS, PHILADELPHIA 

lymph and the blood through the veins to the heart, thus 
improving the circulation and getting rid of waste matter 
lying dormant in the tissues. Exercise causes deeper 
breathing, and the increased supply of oxygen in the lungs 



8 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



purifies more blood, thus providing a larger quantity to be 
carried to the surface of the body. This induces free 
perspiration and thus rids the blood of more impurities. 
Exercise uses up food and creates an appetite for more 
food. 

The desire to exercise is a natural instinct. A baby, if 
left alone on his bed or blanket, will constantly kick his 




A SfX-MONTHS-OLD BABY TAKING EXERCISE. 

This exercise was usually taken nightly on the bed before going to sleep. 

legs and move his arms in his efforts to exercise. It is 
not so much overstudy as lack of exercise and fresh air that 
makes girls and boys break down in the high school. 

Round shoulders, flat chests, and prominent abdomens, 
may be prevented by attention to the matter of correct 
standing and sitting and judicious exercise. Standing 
squarely on both feet, the chest should be held high and 
the chin in, with the back flat and the hips well back. A 



THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM 9 

graceful walk, with easy swinging arms, should be culti- 
vated. 

If the muscles are not used they become weak and flabby. 
Girls who wear their corsets too tight are always com- 
plaining of pains in the back or in the side. These 
pains are due to the relaxation of muscles weak from disuse. 

The Best Exercise. — The best exercise is that which 
combines some special object to be attained with the 
exercising of the muscles. The mind is thus stimulated, 
and consequently muscles and nerves work harmoniously 




PLAYING HOCKEY. 



together. Thus useful labor and games having some 
other object than mere exercise, neither over-tax the 
nerves nor exhaust the will power. 

Young persons should be encouraged to play games 
which take them out into the open air where there is 



IO 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



plenty of oxygen. Tennis and golf, swimming and row- 
ing, climbing trees, vigorous walking, horseback riding, 
dancing and skating, are all splendid ways of exercising. 
These games have the advantage of taking one out into the 
fresh air and sunlight, two powerful factors in improving 
the health. Indigestion, a sluggish liver, and constipa- 
tion can be cured by using a proper amount of exercise 
and fresh air. 

If any special set of muscles needs exercising, the gym- 
nasium will provide for these muscles, at the same time 
leaving overworked muscles at rest. A person employed 







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GIRLS DANCING THE BIGHLAND FLING IN A NEW YORK SCHOOL YARD. 



THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM 



ii 



in a sedentary occupation should have some suitable, 
regular, outdoor exercise, of the nature of tennis or golf; 
if this is not available, the gymnasium will answer. 

Drilling in the gymnasium with the accompaniment of 
music, or the learning of folk 
dances, is an improvement on 
the ordinary calisthenic work, 
which as mere exercise tends to 
become monotonous and tire- 
some. 

In warm climates excessive 
exercise is harmful, while in cold 
climates three times the amount 
of physical work can be accom- 
plished. 

Fatigue. — When the material 
of the muscle cells and nerve 
cells is used up by exercise, the 
sensation of fatigue follows. 
This should be considered a 
warning to stop. If this warn- 
ing is not heeded and the body 
is constantly overworked, nerve 
tire sets in, resulting ultimately 
in a general nervous collapse or 
nervous prostration. Rest is 
then required, for only during 
sleep and rest can the muscle 
cells be built up, ready for more 

WOrk. GIRL PROPERLY DRESSED FOR WALKING. 




12 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



Massage. — Massage is passive exercise. Instead of us- 
ing up the nerve power to direct the muscles, the muscles 
are moved and pinched and squeezed by some one else. 
The lymph and blood are moved along, the internal organs 
are stimulated, and the circulation and respiration are 
improved. Special training is now given in massage. A 




STAR GARDEN PLAYGROUND, PHILADELPHIA 



man who gives massage is called a masseur; a woman, a 
masseuse. 

Massage is invaluable to invalids who are bed-ridden, and 
therefore unable to exercise themselves. General massage 
is a firm manipulation of the whole body. This is usually 
beneficial to most persons, although there are a few con- 



THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM 13 

ditions in which it is contra-indicated. Special massage 
is that applied to one locality; for example, it is given to 
relieve the stiffness about a joint that follows upon a 
dislocation or inflammation; to relieve stiffness of the 
neck or back; or to exercise a fractured arm or leg, since 
the after treatment of a fracture necessitates several weeks' 
rest on the part of the patient. 

Caution. — Exercise should not be taken immediately 
after a meal; nor should a meal be eaten directly after 
exercise. Exercise calls the blood to the surface of the 
body, while digestion requires the blood in the internal 
organs. 



14 



INDIVIDUAL 


HYGIENE 


Frontal... 




*^,._ Par/e £a/ 


Superior,, .... 

' Maxillary 


jE.Tfe/ry^ora/ 
...Inferior Ma x Mary 


Scapula v __ 


,^JBLt 


•^^^Clavide 


mfWk 

Humerus. _J | j^S 


Mil 




1/ ^p 







Kact/'us. 



?ateUa 



Ftbu/a. 



Tarsus 



Phalanges^ 
Fig. 8.-— The human skeleton. 



HI.— THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM OR BONY STRUCTURE. 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM 



Use of the Bones. — The bones are for protection, support, 
and motion. Those which protect are broad and flat; those 
which support are thick and solid; and those which aid 
in motion are long and straight. 

The Skeleton. — The skeleton is divided into the skull, 
the trunk, and the two extremities. The skull consists of 
the cranium, which sur- 
rounds the brain, and 
the bones of the face. 
The trunk consists of 
the spinal column and 
the ribs, the breast bone, 
the collar bones and the 
hip bones. Each extrem- 
ity consists of a single 
large bone in its upper 
part, and two large 
bones in its lower part, 
ending in a number of 
smaller bones which 

form the hand or the foot. The bones of wrist and hand 
in the upper extremity correspond to the bones of ankle 
and foot in the lower extremity. 

The spinal column consists of twenty-four vertebrae 

15 



mal 




Fig. 9.— The skull (Huxley). The illustration 
shows most of the bones of the skull. 



i6 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



strung together by cushion-like joints and resting on a large 

bone, the sacrum, which is followed by a small tail-like 

bone, called the coccyx — twenty-six bones in all. A canal 

j> through the centre of the vertebrae 

k -q carries the spinal cord. A common and 

rather serious injury is fracture of the 

coccyx, caused by a fall from a sled or 

on an icy pavement, or by the fall of 

one whose chair is unexpectedly drawn 

out from under him. 



Composition of Bone. — Bone is com- 
posed of mineral matter, mostly lime, 
which makes it hard and solid; and 
animal matter, like gelatin, which 
makes it tough and elastic. Burning a 
bone takes out the animal matter, 
whereupon the remainder crumbles to 
the touch; while soaking a bone in acid 
dissolves the mineral matter, where- 
upon the bone may be tied in knots. 



n 



Gross Structure of Bone. — By this 
we mean all that is seen with the 
unaided eye. All bones are covered 
with a tough connective tissue called 
the periosteum. All bones are hard on 
the outside and porous on the inside. 
The growth of the bone takes place 
under the hard periosteum. Bony 
tissue may be hard and compact, or 
, spongy. The long bones have a hollow 



Sacru/ 



Coccyx 



THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM 



i7 



shaft filled with yellow marrow, composed of blood 
and fat for nourishment. All the porous parts 
bones contain a red marrow which is 
extremely important, as red blood 
cells are here formed. 

Development of Bones. — All bones, 
except a few in the skull, develop from 

cartilage or 
gristle. This 
hardening 
substance is 
easily bent 
in childhood 
and the 
shape of 
some bones 
may thus be 
changed en- 
tirely byim- 
proper pres- 
sure. 



vessels 
of the 




Fig. 11. — Cross section of bone show- 
ing minute structure. Magnified. 
I. Surface layer of bone; 2, deeper 
portion; 3, Haversian canals from 
which pass the canaliculi; 4, a 
lacuna. Observe arrangement of 
lacunae at surface and in deeper 
portion. 



Joints. — 

The meeting 
of two bones 
is called a 
joint . A 



joint may be 
movable, as the joint of the elbow 
or wrist, or immovable, as the joints fig. 12.— Section of a long bone 
in the bones of the skull. The most T^rt™* the gro " 




18 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



important movable joints are the hinge joint as in the jaw 
and knee; and the ball and socket joint as in shoulder and 
hip. The ends of the bones forming the 
joint are covered with beautiful smooth 
white cartilage, and these bones are held 
in place by tough bands called ligaments. 
A delicate membrane, lines the joint 
and secretes a fluid to keep it moist. 

HYGIENE OF THE BONY STRUCTURE 



ligament^ 




Fig. 13. — A ball-and- 
socket joint. 
At the hips; showing 
ligament. 



Rickets or Rachitis. — When children 
do not get enough animal food, they 
develop be- 



tween the 
sixth month 
and the second year a disease 
called rickets. This disease is 
due to softening of the bones; 
or rather, the bones remaining 
soft, because there is not enough 
mineral matter in the food to 
make them harden. Rickets is 
shown by bow-legs, knock- 
knees, enlargement of the 
bones at the wrist and ankle, 
curving of the collar-bones, and 
sometimes by spinal curvature. 
A physician should always be 
consulted about such cases, 
especially if the child cannot 
walk at the age of one year. 




~~~ \Lme+ 



FRAME FOR 
PATIENT WITH HIP-DISEASE 



THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM 



19 



Tuberculosis or Consumption of the Bones. — This con- 
dition is very common. In the spine it is called Potts' 
Disease and causes hunchback, with sharp curves and 
abscesses. It may be seen in any bone or joint of the body, 
especially on the hip (where it is known as hip disease), 
knee, ankle, and elbow. Children coming in contact with 
a consumptive person generally contract the disease in the 
bones and not in the lungs. It is also contracted by chil- 
dren who drink the milk of tuberculous cows. 

The treatment of these cases consists in fresh air, good 
food and rest. Children do especially well in the salt air 
at the sea shore, and there are now many hospitals and 
sanatoriums where these diseases are treated, notably the 
Children's Sea Shore House at Atlantic City, N. J., and the 
Sea Breeze Seaside Hospital, N. Y. 



Softness of Young Bones. — In the skull of an infant 
the bones are not joined completely. Especially on 
top, near the centre, is a very 
thin spot covered only by skin. 
A slight blow here may prove 
fatal. 

It is natural and best for chil- 
dren to creep, and crawl, as it exer- 
cises the muscles and eventually 
leads to walking; but if children 
are allowed to stand and walk too 
soon, the leg bones may bend FlG . I4 _ The soft spot or fontanel 
under the weight, causing knock- in a baby ' s skulL 

knees or bow-legs, even though there may be no disease 
present. Clothing about the waists of children, if worn too 




20 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



tight, will cause a groove in the lower ribs and prevent 
proper rilling of the lungs with air. Heavy dresses hung 
on straps from the shoulders will- cause shallow grooves 
in the collar-bones. 

Fractures. — A fracture is a break in a bone. Children's 
bones, being weaker and smaller, break more easily than 
those of adults and, because they are elastic, they break 
like a tough green stick, splintering and cracking instead of 
making a clean break. Such a break is called a green-stick 

fracture. The bones of old per- 
sons, also, break easily because 
they lack animal matter and 
are brittle. 

Broken bones must be set; 
that is, the broken ends brought 
together and tied to a splint to 
keep them at rest in position till 
the ends grow together. A 
splint is usually made of light 
wood or plaster. In young 
adults, the bones will unite in 
from three to six weeks; in old 
persons it takes much longer, 
and sometimes they never unite. 
If the broken ends of bone pro- 
trude through the skin, the break is called a compound 
fracture. Healing by first intention means' that the bones 
and skin unite without any trouble; that is, there is no 
infection of the wound by pus. Delayed union takes place 
in people who are in a poor state of health, in old persons, 
and in those addicted to alcohol. 




Fig. 15.— Fracture of the humerus. 



THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM 



21 



Curvatures of the Spine. — The backward curve is shown 
in a slight degree by round shoulders; in a marked degree 
by a hunch-back. The most serious result is a flat chest 
and difficult breathing. Curvatures of this sort result 
from various causes: from occupations requiring habitual 
bending forward of the body (tailors and dressmakers); 
from slipping down in the seat when working and reading ; 
from high-heeled shoes, tight corsets or from habitually 
holding the head forward. The correct standing position 
is chest up, chin in, hips back. The correct sitting position 
is sitting squarely on the seat with the back parallel to 
the back of the chair and both feet resting firmly on the 
floor. On rising from a chair, raise the chest first and 
the rest of the body will 



follow. Bend forward 
from the waist line only, 
keeping the back straight. 
On sitting down, take the 
same precaution to keep 
the chest high, and the 
back straight. 

Lateral curvature may 
be due to certain diseases, 
such as pneumonia and 
pleurisy. It may also re- 
sult from a bad standing 
position with the weight 




¥" 



Fig. 16. — Effect on spinal column of improper 
position in writing. (From Pyle's Personal 
Hygiene.) 

on one foot; from carrying books on one hip or side; from 
defective eyesight, which causes the head to be carried on 
one side; from writing at a desk which is too high or too 
low, etc, The deformity may be corrected by exercising 



22 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

the neglected muscles, by standing and sitting correctly, 
and by breathing deeply and holding the chest high. The 
shoulders will take care of themselves. 

The Joints. — A dislocation results when the end of a 
bone is forced out of its proper place in a joint. The liga- 
ments may be torn or stretched. Usually a physician's aid 
is necessary to reduce the dislocation. Sometimes, how- 
ever, a strong pull on a limb will be sufficient. 

Strains and Sprains. — When the ligaments are only 
stretched, a strain results; if they are torn and the joint 
damaged, a sprain is the result. For a sprain, tie up the 
part in a towel full of crushed ice, or immerse the part in 
hot water. If only a strain, give the part gentle massage 
and support; but in the case of a sprain rest should pre- 
cede massage. 

Rheumatism. — Rheumatism is a blood disease, which 
sometimes shows itself by pain, swelling, and stiffness in 
the joints. The parts should be rested, and a doctor con- 
sulted as to treatment. 



IV.— THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM. 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM 

The excretory system consists of the kidneys, the bladder, 
and the skin. 

All of these organs act as scavengers, i. e., they rid the 
body of poisonous materials which otherwise would do much 
harm. They must always be in good working order for 
the body to be healthy. Any interference with the ex* 
cretion of urine or perspiration 
causes severe illness and some- 
times death. 

The skin and kidneys work 
together. In summer, when the 
skin is very active, less urine is 
passed. In winter, the skin is less 
active and more urine is passed. 

The lungs aid in excretion by 
disposing of moisture and poison- 
ous animal matter. 

The Kidneys. — The kidneys, 
two in number, are situated on 
either side of the spinal column, 
just above the waist line. They 
are bean-shaped, about four inches 
long, two inches wide, and one 
inch thick. They are a dark 

23 




Fig. 17. — Relations of the kidneys. 
(Back view.) 1, the kidneys; 2, 
ureters; 3, bladder; 4, aorta. 
5, inferior vena cava; 6, rena 
arteries; 7, renal veins. 



24 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

brown color in health, and are attached to the back of 
the abdominal wall. Each kidney is supplied with an 
artery and a vein, nerves and lymphatics. The mass of 
the kidney is composed of tubules which excrete the urine. 
They contain the urine as it is segregated, and finally 
unite to form a funnel-shaped cavity on the inner edge 
of the kidney. From this cavity a tube called the 
ureter carries the urine to the bladder, where it is stored. 
There are two ureters and one bladder. 

The Bladder. — The bladder is a round organ, situated 
low down in the front of the pelvis. The urine from the 
two ureters is collected in the bladder, which when full is 
emptied through a tube called the urethra. The bladder 
should be emptied about four or five times daily. The 
urine contains mainly a poisonous material called urea. If 
this is retained in the body it causes headaches, rheuma- 
tism, and other troubles. 

Children who unconsciously "wet the bed," should never 
be punished, but should be taken to a physician and 
treated for a trouble over which they have no control. 

The Skin. — There are two layers — an outer, firm layer, 
called the epidermis, and a thinner, transparent, and more 
elastic layer, called the dermis, or true skin. 

The epidermis is composed of a mass of closely packed 
epithelial cells. Those deeper down are round, but as 
they grow nearer the surface they becotaie flattened. As 
they grow and subdivide, the cells on the surface die 
and are rubbed off as white scales which, becoming dirty 
look like little dark rolls. 

The lowest layer of cells in the epidermis contains the 



THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM 



25 



coloring matter, called pigment. This pigment absorbs 
and arrests light. People living in hot climates require 
more pigment in their skins to withstand the direct rays 
of the sun, hence the dark skins of the natives of tropical 
countries and the fair skins of those in colder lands. Sun- 
Mouth of Sweat Duct 




Papilla 



• Dermis 



Fig. 18. — Section of epidermis, showing papilla. (Highly magnified.) 

burn is simply Nature's method of protecting the under- 
lying tissues. 

The dermis or true skin is connective tissue containing 
sweat and oil glands, roots of hairs, blood vessels, nerves 
and lymphatics. It is connected with underlying organs 
by a loose layer of tissue in which fat may be stored. 
The upper layer of the dermis rises into a number of pro- 



26 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



Sweat Pore 



Epi- 
dermis 



jections called papilla or papillas, with which we feel. The 
epidermis fits over the papillas and fills the hollows 
between them, except on the palms of the hands and the 
soles of the feet. Each papilla contains a blood vessel and 
a nerve. The papillas on the finger tips grow in irregular 
rows or lines, all showing different patterns. In some of 
the larger cities, ink records are made of the thumb 

prints of crim- 
inals as a means 
of identifica- 
tion, no two 
persons ever 
having the same 
markings . 

Hair is an out- 
growth of the 
skin. Each hair 
grows from a 
follicle in the 
true skin. A 
blood vessel and 
a nerve go to 
the root or bulb 
from which the hair grows. Hair is found all over the 
body, except the palms of the hands and the soles of the 
feet. This fact helps to classify us as mammals. 

Each hair is surrounded by little oil glands which keep 
the hair glossy and the skin soft and flexible. 

The sweat glands have their origin in the true skin. 
Each gland is coiled into a little ball, from which a long 
tube passes through the skin to the exterior, where its open- 




Fat 

Cells 



Hair 
Bulb 



Blood 
Tube 



Fig. 19. — Vertical section of the skin. 




THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM 27 

ing is called a pore. Perspiration is largely water, but 
it contains a solid substance, urea, which is found also in 
the urine. The body is perspiring all the time; perspira- 
tion usually evaporates on reaching the surface, leaving the 
excretory material on the skin. The amount of perspira- 
tion is regulated in two ways; first, by the amount of 
blood sent to the skin; second, by the activity of the glands 
themselves. 

The nails are horny plates on the ends of the fingers and 
toes. They are part of the epidermis, but the root grows 
from a fold of the true skin. The nail 
grows from its under side, therefore the 
end of the nail is thicker than the root. 

Automatic Preservation of Tempera- FlG . 20 ._ Sec tionofendof 
ture. — If the body is overheated from fin ^ er showin s naU » 

position. 

exercise, a nerve impulse from the 
brain causes the sweat glands to become more active. 
The evaporation of the sweat cools the body. Exercise 
also causes more blood to flow to the skin, and necessitates 
deeper breathing. The warm blood, coming to the skin, 
loses its heat to the cool air in contact with the skin; 
the cool air drawn into the lungs in turn becomes warm 
— and thus the body is cooled. 

HYGIENE OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM 

The Skin. — A healthy skin is as essential to health as 
soundness in any other organ. Rosy cheeks do not neces- 
sarily indicate health as the hectic flush on the cheek of 
the consumptive proves ; but there should be a rosy flush- 
ing through the skin, with a bright pink color in the lips, 



28 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



the gums, the mucous membrane lining the "eyelids (called 
the conjunctiva), and the ears. Paleness often means a 
poor circulation, liability to colds, indigestion, etc. Weak 
skins are caused by lack of exercise, which allows the sweat 
glands to become clogged; by wearing too heavy clothing 
or by not changing the clothing often enough; and by liv- 




A GROUP OF NEGROES IN THE TROPICS 



ing in overheated rooms. Cold air and cold water are the 
best means of strengthening a weak skin. A healthy skin 
is so accustomed to cold that it is not afraid of draughts 
of air at any time, except when it is wet with perspiration. 
A cold bath is to the skin what exercise is to the muscles. 
Difference in complexion is due to the amount of pigment 
in the skin; the brunette has a great deal, the blonde very 
little, while the albino has none at all. In hot countries the 



THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM 



29 



dark pigment in the skins of natives absorbs the light 
and heat rays and protects the parts beneath. Sunburn 
and tanning are only Nature's method of protecting the 
organs of those persons not normally equipped with suf- 
ficient pigment in the skin. Paint and powder injure the 
skin by clogging the pores and preventing the flow of 
perspiration. 

A good complexion is obtained by frequent bathing and 
washing the face with good soap and soft water, by eating 
nutritious food and but 
little candy — ■ for many 
blemishes on the face 
are caused by indiges- 
tion — by taking a fair 
amount of exercise and 
plenty of sleep; and, 
above all, by cultivating 
a happy disposition, for 
unhappy thoughts are 
shown in the expression 
of the face. Beauty is 
of three kinds, and any- 
one may possess at least 
one of the three : beauty of feature, of color, and best of 
all, of countenance, the result of culture of the intellect 
emotions, and morals. 

Superfluous hair can be removed by the electric needle 
only. Quack medicines only remove it temporarily, over- 
stimulating the follicles so that the growth returns quicker 
than before. 

Blackheads are enlarged pores filled with dirt and oil. 




Fig. 21. — Section of negro skin showing the 
great number of pigment cells. 



30 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

They can be removed by steaming the face, applying cloths 
wrung out in hot water — and then using massage. 

Pimples are small swellings due to the clogging and sub- 
sequent inflammation of the pores or the oil glands. 

Freckles are small patches of brown pigment caused by 
exposure to the sun. 

A scar is a mark left by a wound which the epidermis 
has failed to cover, white fibrous tissue taking its place. 

A mole is a pigmented raised spot, often present from 
birth; containing blood vessels and sometimes hairs. All 
moles should be left entirely alone and no attempt what- 
ever made to eradicate them. It is best to have them re- 
moved by a surgeon, as they sometimes degenerate into 
cancerous tissue 

A wart is a rough elevation of the skin caused by several 
papillae in the dermis pushing out at a weak spot. The real 
cause of warts is not known. They are, however, not caused 
by handling toads, and they can be removed only by the 
application of some caustic. Usually either fuming nitric 
acid or silver caustic is used, but these remedies should be 
applied by a physician only, as severe burns have resulted 
from their use by unskilled persons. 

A corn is a thickening of the epidermis caused by pres- 
sure or friction. At the earliest intimation of trouble 
from a corn, bunion, or callus, procure a good make of 
surgeon's plaster, or adhesive plaster, and use enough to 
cover the part. This is not only preventive, but curative, 
and will give great relief. It is dangerous to pare a corn 
or callus with a knife or a razor. The knife should be 
surgically clean; that is, boiled for five minutes, or 
thoroughly washed in an antiseptic solution. Blood 



THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM 



3i 



poisoning from using a dirty knife to cut corns is a com- 
mon occurrence, and a serious matter. If special treat- 
ment seems necessary, consult a chiropodist. 

For tender or tired feet, apply witch hazel or bathe in 
hot water and 
then cold, using 
a tablespoonful 
of alum, borax, 
or salt to a basin 
of water. Then 
rub briskly with 
alcohol. The 
feet, as well as 
the neck and all 
creases of the 
body, should be 
bathed every 
day. 

Baths and Bathing. — Baths may be taken to promote 
cleanliness; as a tonic and stimulant to the skin; and as 
medicinal agents. John Wesley, in a sermon on " Dress," 
said, " Cleanliness is next to godliness." In other words, 
a moral elevation accompanies bodily purity and clean- 
liness. Purity of the morals and purity of the mind are 
found with a clean body. Cleanliness promotes personal 
neatness, without which there is a lack of proper self- 
respect and a positive disrespect lor the feelings of others. 
All nations, as they advance in civilization and refine- 
ment of manners, pay more attention to personal clean- 
liness. This is shown at the present time in the number of 
bath-rooms, bath-tubs and various devices for clean- 





i 


If / 




\ 


I / 


F 




Li 


fe 




¥ 1 




\ 


Am 














^^3 


L~!y 


^IP^f 



Fig. 22. — Normal foot contrasted with one 
deformed by cramping. 



32 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 




.------ 







T~titl 



A MODERN BATH-ROOM 



THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM 33 

liness which are looked upon as necessities, not as luxuries, 
in our houses. 

The ancient Greeks and Romans paid a great deal of 
attention to their baths, having great public baths which 
they used every day. These baths consisted, first, in an 
exposure of the body to hot air, followed by a dry rub ; then 
hot water, followed first by tepid and then by cold water; 
then a scraping of the skin with bronze instruments; and 
last of all an anointing of the body with precious perfumes. 
The Turkish and Russian baths of to-day are modeled on 
these old Greek and Roman baths, the Turkish bath em- 
ploying hot air, while the Russian uses steam, followed by a 
kneading of the body and a cold plunge. These baths are 
very stimulating and invigorating to a strong, healthy 
person, but should be avoided in cases of heart disease, 
advanced lung disease, great debility, or acute inflamma- 
tions. 

Baths are classified according to temperature into: 

Hot: 98 Fahr. and upward, 

Warm: 90 Fahr., 

Tepid: 8o° Fahr., 

Cold: 70 Fahr. and downward. 
Baths are classified according to kind into: 

Shower or spray; sponge; and tub. 

The hot bath may be taken for medicinal purposes: — 

1. To relieve congestion causing pain or inflammation in 
internal organs. In such cases the hot bath draws the 
blood to the surface. 

2. To alleviate fatigue and exhaustion. 

3. To stimulate the body in cases of shock. 



34 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



Results of the Hot Bath: 

i . The temperature of the body is raised. 

2. Blood vessels in the skin are dilated and the skin be- 
comes reddened. 

3. Internal congestion is relieved. 
Precautions: 

t. Do not expose the skin to cold air after a hot bath; go 
to bed and keep warm. 

2. If for any reason it is necessary to go out after a hot 
bath, take a cold shower and a brisk rub to tone up the 
: laxed skin. 

3. Do not take a hot bath just before or after a meal. 
The Warm Bath. — In this bath the body loses exactly as 

much heat as it does normally in the air. The warm bath 

has no decided 
effect on body 
temperature. It 
is mainly cleans- 
ing, to dissolve 
the excess of per- 
spiration, oil, and 
dust. It should 
be a tub bath, 
taken at least 
twice a week, us- 
ing plenty of good 
soap and a brush, 

Fig. 23. — Bath-room requisites. an d should last 

ten or fifteen minutes. It should be taken before going 
to bed. If one must go out after bathing, follow with a 
cool sponge and rub. 




THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM 35 

The Cold Bath. — This is stimulating and tonic. It 
should be taken in the morning on rising, when the 
skin is warm and relaxed and needs toning up. The 
cold bath should last from fifteen to sixty seconds and 
should be followed by a rub with a rough towel. This 
bath may also be taken after any muscular exertion caus- 
ing perspiration, such as gymnasium work; or it may be 
used with benefit after the hot or the warm bath. 

Precautions : 

1. Never take a cold bath in a cold room or when the 
skin is cold. 

2. Never take a cold bath unless it is followed by a 
reaction, that is a feeling of warmth and tingling. 

3. Never take a cold bath just before or just after a meal; 
wait an hour or two. 

The cold bath is beneficial especially in warm climates, 
and throughout the summer in temperate climates. It is 
absolutely necessary for those who wear heavy clothes and 
five in very warm houses. 

The cold bath should be a sponge, shower or spray — 
not a tub bath. Those who object to bathing the entire 
body should at least sponge the face, neck, chest, shoulders, 
and arms with cold water every morning to prevent colds. 
A very cold bath is quite stimulating, and causes a loss of 
nervous energy; it is weakening if prolonged more than a 
few minutes. 

Sea Bathing. — This popular sport is very stimulating, 
because of the salt in the water and the exercise accom- 
panying the bath, In sea bathing, be careful to: 

1. Bathe on a sunny day, when the sun beats on the sand. 



36 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



2. Get wet all over at once. Never walk in slowly, 
allowing the water to creep up the body. 

3. Exercise at once, by swimming or jumping about. Do 
not be afraid to shout and exercise the lungs at the same time. 




PUBLIC BATH FOR MEN AND BOYS 

Note the A ustralian Crawl in Swimmer on Lzft and Treading Water, in swimmer on Right 



4. Leave the water when you are in a glow. Do not 
wait until the lips become blue and the teeth chatter. 



THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM 37 

5. Remember that the usual length of time for a bath 
is from five to ten minutes. 
Precautions: 

1. Never take a sea-bath just before or just after a meal. 

2. Never take a sea-bath at night. 

3. Never take a sea-bath when the body is exhausted 
and perspiring from severe exercise. Reaction does not 
take place, and there is a congestion of the internal organs, 
especially the nerve centres in the brain, causing cramp. 

4. Never take a sea-bath when the weather is chilly or 
when a cold wind is blowing. The body becomes cold while 
undressing and is further chilled in the water. The actual 
temperature of the water is not so important as the relative 
difference between the temperature of the air and water. 
The temperature of the water should be much lower than 
that of the air. 

Bather's Cramp. — This is a painful spasm of one muscle 
or a group of muscles, particularly of the leg. If it occurs 
all over the body, the person sinks like a stone. Cramp may 
be induced by the sudden plunge of an overheated body 
into cold water; or by prolonged exercise, as continuous 
swimming; or by any sudden or unusual exercise. It 
occurs generally in good swimmers and athletes, who 
become foolhardy. The only remedy is to turn on the 
back and float while calling for help. 

Care of the Ears While Bathing. — -Do not allow salt 
water to enter the ears. It is irritating to the mucous 
membrane of the ears, nose, mouth and eyes. Put small 
plugs of cotton in the ears, and take all waves on the back, 
never on the side or face. 



38 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

Swimming. — ■ This is one of the finest of exercises, as it 
calls into use all the muscles of the body. It should, how- 
ever, not be indulged in more than once a day, and then for 
a period not exceeding a half hour. The heat produced 
by the muscular exercise counteracts the effect of the 
cold water. Every child should be taught to swim. 

For Non-swimmers. — In case of emergency, tread water 
like a dog on all fours, or in swimmers' parlance "paddle 
doggie." Do not raise the arms out of the water, as you 
will start to do instinctively, but keep them low. Hold 
the chin up and do not hurry, but paddle quietly till help 
comes. If possible, float when tired. 

The Hair. — All mammals have hair for protection as well 
as for beauty. On the scalp it protects the brain from 
blows and from changes in temperature. It protects the 
eyes from dust and the ears from insects; the beard in men 
protects the larynx, which is larger and more prominent 
than in women. In primitive man, who hunted wild beasts, 
the beard was a protection to the throat. On the body, 
except in the palms and soles, it gives a larger surface for 
carrying off perspiration and increases the delicacy of 
touch. Goose flesh is the remains of an old reflex action 
which causes the mammal to raise the hair on the body 
to promote warmth. 

The scalp, to be healthy, should be thick, freely movable 
and should have good circulation. If the scalp is thin, the 
blood vessels are few and small; they are drawn too tightly 
over the skull and circulation is obstructed, thus causing 
the hair to become thin. To correct this condition the 
scalp may be loosened by massage. The oil glands around 



THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM 



39 



the hair keep it glossy and waterproof and make the skin 
soft and flexible. 

Dandruff is composed of scales of dead skin and oil. An 
excess of dandruff is a disease of the scalp. It causes great 




AN ENERGETIC USE OF THE HAIR BRUSH 



irritation of the scalp and as a consequence, prevents 
nourishment and makes the hair thin. 

The Shampoo. — If the hair is washed too often, the oil is 
removed and the hair becomes dry and thin. If the hair 



40 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

is not washed often enough, it becomes oily and dirty., 
dandruff develops, and the hair becomes thin. Hair should 
ordinarily be washed once a month; oily hair, every two or 
three weeks; dry hair, every six weeks. A good soap 
should be used, and the hair rinsed and dried thoroughly. 
If possible, dry in the sun, out of doors. A dry shampoo, 
instead of washing, is excellent between weeks. Brushing, 
massage, the application of a good hair tonic, and some- 
times the electric vibratory machine, will do much to stimu- 
late the circulation of the blood in the scalp. 

Baldness. — This is due especially in men, to a tight, warm 
covering on the head. Men's hats are harmful, in this 
respect, being often of felt, with tight hatbands causing 
a red line around the forehead. Cool air and sunlight are 
stimulating to the hair; it is therefore beneficial to go bare 
headed in summer when the sun is not too hot. 

To care for the hair, brush daily, clean the brush on a 
towel and wash it in ammonia water once a week. In 
buying a comb, see that the edges of the teeth are smooth 
so that they will not catch the hair. The material of the 
comb may be bone or ivory — never metal. The brush 
should not be too soft nor too hard. Metal brushes wound 
the scalp. Avoid electric and wire brushes. 

Avoid the use of hair -dyes' ox restorers. They contain 
poisonous substances, which may cause serious injury. 
Avoid hair "rats" and artificial hair puffs. They are 
almost always unclean and they make the head hot and 
damp, thus thinning the hair. 

Avoid curling-irons, as they ruin the hair by breaking 
and singeing it, the hair becoming ultimately dry and thin. 



THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM 



-M 



The condition of the hair, also of the nails and the skin 
itself is a reflection of the general health. Gray hair may 
come suddenly from fright, joy or grief, though such cases 
are much more rare than we are commonly led to believe. 
The pigment in the shaft of the hair is replaced by bubbles 




GIRLS DRYING HAIR AFTER A SHAMPOO 

Note the natural head of hair of girl on right, and hair ruined by tonics and 
curling-irons of girl on left. 

of air, though the hair may still be healthy. Graying of 
the hair from age is usually due to lack of nutrition from 
natural causes, as well as from overwork, anxiety, and in 
case of black hair, to hereditary tendencies. Gray or white 
hair, if tastefully arranged, is a crown of beauty for the 
mature or elderly woman. 



42 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

To Improve Thin Hair. — The scalp circulation may be 
improved by general tonics taken internally, and by mas- 
sage. The best local hair tonics are sunshine, cleanliness, 
and massage. There are many " patent" hair tonics on 
the market, some of which are good, some bad, but all 
expensive. Do not waste time and money on such prep- 
arations, but consult a good skin specialist to ascertain 
whether a medicinal hair tonic is really needed. He will 
prescribe a beneficial tonic that may be used without in- 
Jury to the hair or skin. 

Pediculosis or Lice in the Hair. — The louse is a parasitic 
insect, living on the human scalp. It lays its eggs, called 
nits, on the hairs in little white gummy cases. Lice 
reproduce very quickly and are easily carried from one 
person to another. Anyone may at some time in his life 
become afflicted either with lice in the head or on the body. 
In case of such a misfortune no stigma need attach to the 
person, the infection being accidental. To get rid of lice 
observe the following: 

Wash or shampoo the hair with soap and warm water. 
Apply tincture of fishberry or tincture of larkspur to the 
scalp for three nights in succession, tying up the head in 
a towel. Then shampoo the head again and apply the 
remedy for three more nights. Use a fine comb every 
day. For the nits, wash in a solution of vinegar and water. 
Kerosene may be used and is efficacious, but there is always 
the danger of catching fire. 

The Nails. — The nails are a protection for the ringers 
and toes. They enable us to grasp objects more firmly and 
they help us to pick up small objects. They should be 
long enough to cover the finger. 



THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM 



43 



Transverse grooves across the nails are caused by illness, 
during which the growth is stopped. The new cells are 
at the root; therefore if the root is destroyed the nail will 
not grow again. A finger-nail requires from four to six 
months to grow; a toe-nail, six to twelve months; a great 




"ARE OF TOE NAILS 



toe-nail, twelve or twenty months. To care for the nails 
observe the following : 

(i.) Soften the nails, first, in warm, soapy water. 

(2.) Cut the edges carefully with strong, curved scis- 
sors and trim the ragged corners with a nail file. 

(3.) Never touch the upper flat surface with a sharp 
instrument. 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



(4.) Gently push the skin back from the nail with an 
orange-wood stick, to prevent hangnails. A hangnail is a 
small piece of skin, due to a break caused by the skin's 
adhering to the nail as it grows. They are very ugly and 
painful and may be a source of infection. 

(5.) Brush the nails with a brush, soap, and water to 
get the dirt and germs out from under the nail. A pointed 
stick rubbed with soap may also be useful. 

(6.) Do not bite the nails, as it stubs the fingers, giving 

them an ugly 
shape, and im- 
pairs the sense 
of touch. It is 
a nervous habit 
which may be 
broken by ap- 
plying to the 
nails a solution 
of bitter qui- 
nine. Small 
pieces of nail if 
swallowed, as is 
likely, will tend 
Biting the nails 




Fig. 24.— Perfect, and bitten nails. 



to injure the linings of the digestive tube, 
is, moreover, a most unseemly habit. 



CLOTHING 



Man is the only animal that wears clothing. This is the 
reason why man is the most widely distributed of all the 
animal species for, by the addition of clothing, he may 



THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM 



45 



change his habitation from warm to cold climates and 
vice versa. 

Uses of Clothing. — The chief use of clothing is to retain 
the body heat. It also protects the body from injuries, 
from extremes of heat and cold, and from sunlight. People 
should take pride in keeping their clothes clean and neat. 
Those who do so are much less liable to infectious diseases. 

Materials. — Clothing may be made of wool, silk, cotton, 
linen, leather or fur. The effect of clothing depends on the 
weave. Woolen is woven loosely and has large air spaces 
in the meshes; it is therefore warm. It absorbs moisture 
readily, but dries very slowly. It also absorbs odors. Silk, 
cotton, and linen are all woven tightly. The threads are 
close together, leaving only small air spaces. These 
materials are therefore cool. Linen is coolest, because it is 
woven very hard with the smallest meshes. Cotton and 
linen absorb moisture rapidly and also dry rapidly. 

Underclothes. — Woolen underclothes are very warm; 
they absorb perspiration readily, but dry very slowly, thus 
chilling the body. Cotton and linen underclothes are cooler 
than woolen. They also absorb perspiration, but they dry 
quickly: therefore they make the best underwear. When 
cotton and linen are woven like stockings they are much 
warmer than when woven as dress goods. The weaving 
and the quality of drying quickly are more important than 
the materials. Cotton underclothes are cheaper than 
woolen and do not shrink in the washing nor harbor moths. 
A judicious mixture of wool and cotton, or silk and cotton, 
is good. Woolen underclothes may be worn by delicate 
little children and old people. 



46 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

Underclothes should be changed frequently; at least 
once a week in winter and twice a week in summer. All 
clothing worn during the day should be removed at night 
and carefully aired. In the morning the bedclothes 
should be pulled from the bed separately and spread on 
chairs before the open window. Bedclothing should 
be light and warm. Weight is not warmth, as may be 
seen in the case of a down quilt which is very light but 
very warm. 

Outer Clothes. — In winter, the outer clothing should be 
of wool; in summer, of linen, cotton, or silk. In winter, too 
heavy clothing should not be worn in the house, as it 
causes overheating; neither should the house be so warm 
as to necessitate very thin clothing. Dressing too warmly 
drains the body of nervous energy. A heavy coat should 
be put on when going out in cold weather. 

Rubber, leather, and fur are warm, because they are 
impervious. In these materials there is no ventilation, 
and consequently no evaporation of the perspiration. 

In spring and fall, the clothes should be changed accord- 
ing to the weather, not according to a certain date on the 
calendar. 

In summer, clothes should be thin and loose, and pref- 
erably of linen and cotton. Protection from heat depends 
somewhat on the color of the clothing. Black and white 
are not, strictly speaking, colors as black is absence of 
color, while white is a union of all colors. However, cus- 
tom sanctions the use of the word color in referring to black 
and white. The coolest color is white, because it reflects 
heat. Following in order of coolness are gray, yellow, light 



THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM 



47 



blue, pink, the darker colors, and black. Black is the warm- 
est color, because it absorbs heat. 

The large blood vessels are nearest the surface at the neck, 
wrists, knees, and ankles. Therefore, very thin or no cover- 
ing on these parts tends to keep the body cool. High col- 
lars, high shoes, and long sleeves should be worn in winter 



r\ ■ 




H i 


L It 

/ r 


i 





Fid. 25. — Models of hygienic and unhygienic corsets, (a), point at which corset may be 
snugly laced without harm. \b), (c) and (d), points at which tightening is harmful. 
Compare the figures. 



and discarded in summer. Women are usually too cold 
in winter, while men are too warm in summer. Each might 
take a lesson from the other. 

Wet clothes conduct heat from the body, and a chill 
follows. On rainy or snowy days, thick, high shoes and 
rubbers should be worn, but one should be careful to dis- 
card the rubbers while indoors. Damp clothes are favor- 
able to skin diseases. ■ 



4 8 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



1 m^ ^^b^b^^^^^^^^H 


BK_ . ■ ■ 

Hi ' ' ' bb 


1 BB^ 


iv < ?VHb^b^b^b^b^b^b1 

bf - ' ^ffl H 


Hi ^IM 1 






^^^^^ ,, / v^^| 


HktaB^^H! 



VENUS D£ MItQ 



THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM 



49 



Tight clothes cramp the necessary movements of the 
body and interfere with circulation and ventilation. Shoes, 
stockings and garters worn too tight cause cold feet by 
interfering with circulation. Tight collars cause headache 
and dizziness, as well as an ugly, thin neck. Every girl 
wants a pretty neck, and the way to 
have one is not to wear a collar at all. 
Tight corsets and belts indicate either 
ignorance, stupidity, or carelessness. 
The girl who contracts the waist by a 
corset or belt shows ignorance of the 
structure of the body, the laws of 
health, the laws of art and beauty, 
and an utter indifference to her own 
strength and well being. 

Tight corsets interfere with breath- 
ing and the heart action, and displace 
downward the stomach, liver, and in- 
testines. Fainting is not uncommon 
in girls wearing tight corsets. By com- 
pression of the lower lungs, these parts 
remain flat and unused, and liable to 
attack by the tubercle bacillus, or 
germ of consumption. It is therefore 
especially dangerous for a girl having in her family history 
a tendency to consumption or tuberculosis to wear a tight 
corset. There are a number of corset waists on the mar- 
ket which may be worn if some support is needed for 
the waistband of the skirts. At the present time, it is 
a beneficent fact that large waists are the height of 
fashion. One-piece gowns also do away with the tight 




Fig. 26. — (a) Outline of shoe. 
(b) Outline of foot, (c) 
Outline of weight-bearing 
area of foot. 



50- 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



belt and skirt band, besides being a becoming style for 
most people. 

Dyes. — Dyes in clothing should be absolutely fast. 
Shirts, stockings, and flannels should be watched in this 
particular, as skin diseases and blood-poisoning have been 
known to arise from dyes. 

Shoes. — Shoes should be three-quarters of an inch longer 
than the foot. They should have broad toes, heels not more 




Fig. 27. — An X-ray view of the human foot in a hygienic low-heeled 
shoe. (Note that none of the bones are cramped.) 

than one inch high, and a straight inner side. High heels 
throw the body forward. A person wearing high heels 
tires easily and becomes irritable; the eyes become strained; 
round shoulders develop, with a flattening of the chest and 
shallow breathing; sometimes curvature of the spine 
follows. There is an ugly, ungraceful, stilted walk, with a 
contraction or shortening of the tendon Achilles in the 
back of the heel, so that low-heeled shoes finally become 
uncomfortable. 
Tight, narrow, pointed toes cause corns, bunions, and 



THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM 



5i 



calluses, and develop on the feet a valgus or turning out of 
the great toe. Tight stockings will also cause this con- 
dition. Stockings should be rights and lefts like the shoes, 
and should be wide enough to accommodate the feet com- 
fortably. Heavy bedclothes sometimes distort the feet. 
Rubber heels save the spine a great deal of shock in 
walking. Rubbers protect shoes in wet weather. Shoe 
trees should be used to keep the shoes in proper shape. 




Fig. 2S. — High heels. An X-ray view of foot in unhygienic high-heeled shoe. 
Note injurious effect on bones of foot. 



It is better to have several pairs of shoes in use at one 
time, than to wear one pair constantly until worn out. 

Black shoes are warmer than brown ones. Patent 
leather shoes are bad because they are poorly ventilated. 

Flat foot results from a breaking down of the arch of the 
foot. It should be treated by an adequate support in the 
shoe and by exercises to strengthen the muscles and 
tendons prescribed by an orthopedic surgeon. This con- 
dition is very common, though often unrecognized. 



52 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 




SUITABLE AND UNSUITABLE SHOES FOR OUTDOOR USE. 

vent friction. Large corns 
should be treated by a chiro- 
podist. 

Varicose veins, chilblains 
and frost-bite result from 
defective circulation, and 
should be treated by a phy- 
sician. 



For soft corns 
powder with bak- 
ing soda or alum 
and put a piece of 
lamb's wool or 
soft linen between 
the toes. At the 
earliest indication 
of trouble, place a 
piece of adhesive 
plaster over the 
sore spot to pre- 





Fig. 20. — Bones of foot in round toed and 
pointed shoes. 




Fig. .30. — Flat Foot. 



THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM 

A 1 



53 





Fig. 31. — Proper position of feet in standing (A) and walking (A 1 ). Note the "toeing 
in " and grasping position of the toes. 





Fig. 32. — Improper position of feet in standing (B) and walking (B l ). 



V — THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 

The Digestive System consists of the alimentary canal and 
the glands which assist digestion. The alimentary canal 

or tube is divided into the 
mouth, pharynx or throat, 
(Esophagus, stomach, small 
and large intestine. It is 
lined throughout with a 
mucous membrane. The 
large glands assisting in 
digestion are the salivary 
glands in the mouth, the liver, 
and the pancreas. 

The Mouth. — The impor- 
tant structures in the mouth 
are the tongue, teeth, and 
salivary glands. 

The Tongue. — The tongue 
is composed of muscles, cov- 
ered with mucous membrane, 
and is used in masticating 
the food, in speaking, and 
in tasting. 

The Teeth.— There are two 
sets of teeth, the milk and 




*ig. 33. — The digestive system. 1, the 
gullet; 2, stomach; 3, small intestine; 4, 
large intestine; 5, appendix; 6, liver; 7, 
pancreas; 8, spleen. The liver is here 
represented as raised somewhat so as to 
Show the organs behind it. 



54 



THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 55 

the permanent. The milk teeth are twenty in number. 
They appear between the fourth and eighth month, the 
two middle lower incisors appearing first. The set should 
be complete by the second year. 

Kinds of Teeth Upper Time of Appearance 

Temporary Set 

Incisors „...._. ^-^^L 7t ^ ^ ear 

Canine — -^rCm si J^V-'"'~" 8th . 

jl \*AJ/kA^~\ nth 

Bicuspids /■■■■ '■ '/-' L JkL °th 

yv~ ioth 

_Jft " 

«S|-- 1 2th 

'^\ 2 4 th 




Lower 
Permanent Set 

FlG. 34. — Teeth: kinds, arrangement, and time of appearance. 



The permanent teeth are thirty- two in number, eight in 
each half of each jaw. The two front ones in each half 
jaw are called the incisors, from their chisel shape. They 



56 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



are for cutting the food, and correspond to the teeth of 
rodents. The next tooth in order is the canine, or eye 
tooth, which is used in tearing the food, and corresponds 
to the long teeth of flesh-eating mammals. The next in 
order are the two bicuspids, and three tricuspids or molars, 
used in grinding food; these correspond to the teeth of 
grain-eating mammals. The last of the three molars is 
called the wisdom tooth, as it does not appear until the 



Eustachian 
• 'wfc Tube 




Open 
Fig 35. — Positions of the organs of the mouth and throat during breathing. 

eighteenth or twentieth year, supposedly the age of wisdom. 
In reality it is a shallow root, useless and troublesome 
and lasting but a short time. It is one of the proofs of 
the evolution of man from the lower mammals. 

The parts of a tooth are the crown, neck and root. The 
crown is the part which is visible. The root is the part 
which is sunk in the jawbone. The neck lies between crown 
and root and is at the edge of the gum. 

A tooth is composed of enamel, dentine, cement, and pulp. 



THE DIGESTIFE SYSTEM 57 

The enamel is the hard, white, glistening substance on 
the outside of the crown. Dentine gives hardness to the 
tooth. The cement is a layer that holds the root in the 
jawbone. The pulp is a soft, reddish material on the in- 
side of the tooth and consists of blood vessels, nerves and 
some fat. The pulp is the part of the tooth afflicted when 
one has a "toothache,'' because of the nerves. 

There are three pairs of salivary glands in the mouth 




Eustachian 

Tube 

^^ZT>\ \ Soft Palate. 

"\ Raised 

j-Food 




Gullet, Open 



Glottis, 
Closed 



Fig. 36. — Positions of the organs of the mouth and throat during swallowing. 

which pour out their secretion to be mixed with the food. 
They are the parotid, the submaxillary and the sub- 
lingual. The secretion of these glands, plus the secretion 
of mucus from the mucous membrane lining the mouth, 
forms a digestive juice called saliva, which acts on starches, 
changing them into sugar. 

Inflammation of the parotid gland is called "mumps," 
or parotitis, the suffix "itis" meaning inflammation. 



58 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

Pharynx and (Esophagus. — The back of the mouth, 
commonly known as the throat, is called the pharynx. 
The nasal passages open into the upper part of the pharynx, 
as do also the two Eustachian tubes from the middle ear. 
The soft palate hangs down into the pharynx from the roof 
of the mouth. At the root of the tongue, on either side, are 
two soft, reddish-brown bodies, called the tonsils. There 
is a third, smaller tonsil at the base of the tongue. At the 
back of the pharynx are the openings into the larynx and 
oesophagus. The larynx lies in front, and all food swal- 
lowed must pass across it. Therefore it is protected by a 
lid, called the epiglottis, which prevents the food from slip- 
ping down into the wind-pipe. 

There are seven openings into the throat; i. e., two from 
the nasal - passages, two from the Eustachian tubes, one 
from the larynx, one from the oesophagus and one from the 
mouth cavity. 

The oesophagus or gullet carries food from the mouth to 
the stomach. The walls are muscular and by their con- 
traction the food is passed along. 

The Stomach. — The stomach is an enlargement of the 
alimentary canal, which holds about two quarts. It 
lies on the left side, under the ribs and below the heart. In 
the walls are several layers of involuntary muscles, the 
function of which is to keep the food in motion while diges- 
tion is going on. In the mucous membrane lining of the 
stomach are glands which secrete the gastric juice. This 
juice is acid and acts on some of the foods — the proteids 
(meats, white of egg, casein of cheese, gluten of wheat, 
legumen of pease and beans), changing them into pep- 



THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 



59 



tones. These are substances readily absorbed by the blood 
vessels. 

The Small Intestine. — This is about 25 feet long and is 
divided into three parts: the duodenum, containing the open- 
ing of the ducts from 
the gall-bladder and 
pancreas, a wonderful 
gland that secretes 
juices for digesting 
every kind of food, 
the jejunum or the 
longest portion, and 
the ileum. The walls 
of the intestine contain 
involuntary muscles 
for moving the food 
along. In the lining 
of the mucous mem- 
brane are thousands of 
little projections, called 

villi, or villuses, which absorb the digested food. In the 
walls are glands which secrete the intestinal juice, the action 
of which is not well known. The small intestine leads by 
a valve into the large intestine. In typhoid fever ulcers 
form in the small intestine. 

The Large Intestine. — This consists of the caecum, colon, 
and rectum. 

The caecum is a large, blind sac into which the small 
intestine empties itself. From its lower part hangs the 
vermiform appendix. The appendix is from three to six 




Fig. 37. — Gastric glands, a, single gland showing 
the two kinds of secreting cells and the duct 
where the glands open on to the surface, b, inn^r 
surface of stomach magnified. The small pits are 
the openings from the glands. 



6o INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

inches long. Since the caliber is very small, this sac may 
easily become blocked with food. The circulation in it is 
poor; therefore it is easily inflamed and the condition known 
as appendicitis develops. The appendix is all that remains 
of a part of the intestine used in the lower animals. It is 
of no use to man, and frequently becomes diseased (appen- 
dicitis) in which event it must be removed to prevent a 
general inflammation of the abdominal cavity. Severe 
abdominal pain low down on the right side, especially in 
boys, should never be neglected, but always receive imme- 
diate attention. The operation for excision is a simple one 
if taken in time. 

The colon is divided into the ascending, transverse, and 
descending colon. 

The rectum is the last eight or nine inches of the colon, 
and is provided at the surface of the body with a circular 
muscle which controls the outlet, known as the anus. 
Constipation sometimes causes the mucous lining of the 
rectum to be pushed down outside the anus, causing piles 
or hemorrhoids. This condition may be treated by the 
use of an astringent lotion such as witch hazel, or a solution 
of alum or boracic acid, one teaspoonful to a pint of hot 
water. In severe cases, always consult a physician. 

The Two Large Glands. — The liver is a large, brownish- 
red organ lying on the right side, under the ribs and below 
the diaphragm. The cells of the liver manufacture from 
the blood a liquid called bile, which assists in digestion. It 
is stored in the gall-bladder until needed, when it is emptied 
into the duodenum. The liver also receives partially 
digested food from the intestines. This material is stored 



THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 



61 




Fig. 38. — Abdominal cavity with organs of digestion in position. 



62 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



up in the form of glycogen, a food-product somewhat re- 
sembling sugar 

The pancreas is a pinkish-white organ, lying behind the 
stomach. Its cells secrete the pancreatic juice, which is 
emptied into the duodenum. 




Digestion. — Digestion is that process by which food is 
changed into substances which will dissolve and pass 
through the walls of the alimentary canal into the blood. 

Digestion begins in the 
mouth. Here the food is chewed 
by the teeth, rolled about by 
the tongue, and mixed with the 
saliva, about a pint of which is 
secreted daily. The saliva con- 
tains an important ferment, 
which acts on the starches, 
changing them into sugar. 

A free flow of saliva and the 
odor and taste of food combine 
to cause an outpouring of gas- 
tric juice in the stomach. When the food reaches the 
stomach, the pepsin in the gastric juice changes the pro- 
teids into peptones, which are easily taken up by the 
blood vessels in the walls of the stomach. The stomach 
has several muscular coats, which are used in churning 
the food and mixing it with the gastric juice so that when 
the food is ready to leave the stomach by way of the 
pylorus, or opening into the small intestine, it is in a thick, 
milky condition. 

The food passes from the stomach into the intestine in 



Fig. 39. — Liver cells where is stored the 
glycogen; c, capillaries. 



THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 63 

small amounts every few minutes, to be acted on by the 
intestinal juice. This juice splits up proteids, changes 
common sugar to grape sugar, and stimulates the flow of 
the pancreatic juice. The bile is a greenish-yellow liquid 
secreted by the liver which helps to emulsify fats and 
stimulates the action of some of the other intestinal juices. 
An emulsion is a liquid in which fat is suspended in an 
extremely fine state of subdivision. There are natural 
emulsions, such as milk, and artificial ones, such as cod 
liver oil, mayonnaise dressing, etc. 

The Pancreatic Juice. — The more we know of this juice 
the more important we find its action. It changes pro- 
teids into peptones, starches into sugar, besides acting on 
the fats. The dark mass of food material, consisting of 
peptones, sugar and soap, is then passed along the small 
intestine. 

Peristalsis. — The contraction of the walls of the intes- 
tines causes a wave-like movement, or peristalsis, which 
propels the food along and mixes it with the intestinal 
juices. The food is in the intestine from five to fifteen 
hours, when most of the nourishing part is absorbed. The 
remainder then passes into the large intestine, where a 
small amount of absorption occurs; and then the refuse is 
ejected from the lower part or rectum. 

Absorption. — In the small intestine most of the food is 
absorbed by the villuses, of which there are about twenty 
thousand to the square inch. Each villus contains a small 
vessel, called a lacteal. The lacteals unite into larger 
tubes, and finally converge to form the thoracic duct. 
This is a tube lying against the spinal column, which 



6 4 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



Villuses 



Openings of 
Glands 



empties into a large vein in the neck, thus reaching the 
blood. The peptones and sugars are absorbed directly by 
the blood vessels of the intestinal wall and finally emptied 
into the portal vein, which also receives peptones from the 

blaod vessels in 
Mlfl flfliifllfllMfl the walls of the 

stomach. This 
blood is carried 
to the liver where 
part of the sugar 
is changed into a 
substance called 
glycogen, an ani- 
mal starch. The liver stores up most of this substance 
until the body needs it. Some of it is carried to the 
muscles and stored up there, while another part circulates 
in the blood, combining with the oxygen to form heat. 



Intestinal Glands 




Ftg. 40. 



Mucous membrane of small intestine, showing 
intestinal glands and villuses. 



HYGIENE OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 

Care of the Teeth. — 1. The preservation of the teeth 
depends largely upon the enamel; if once injured, it is 
never restored. Do not crack nuts with the teeth nor bite 
thread; do not pick the teeth with pins or metal tooth- 
picks; avoid gritty tooth-powders; do not eat or drink 
food that is very hot, or very cold, or acid. 

2. Chewing hard food aids materially the circulation in 
the teeth, and keeps them strong; too much soft food 
causes decay. Eat hard apples, crusts of bread, etc. 

3. Brush the teeth night and morning, and after meals, 
especially at night, as otherwise the food from the last meal 
will remain in the teeth until morning. The teeth should 



THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 



65 



not be brushed sideways, but up and down. This method 
removes the food from between the teeth. 

4. Use wooden or goose-quill toothpicks or dental floss. 




A VIGOROUS USE OF DENTAL FLOSS. 



Do this in the privacy of your room rather than at the table, 
or before other people. 

5. The tooth-brush should be medium hard. If too soft 
it will soften the gums, and if too hard it will injure the 
gums, in either case causing bleeding. 

6. Use a good tooth-powder, paste, or liquid cleanser. If 
the powder is gritty, it probably contains powdered pumice 
stone, which is destructive to the enamel if used daily. A 
good cleanser may be made up by any druggist from pre- 
cipitated chalk and orris root, or a good castile soap may 
be used. The best of all is ordinary baking soda. 

7. Have the teeth examined every six months by a good 



66 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

'dentist. He will find small cavities between the teeth 
which would otherwise remain unnoticed until too late. 
All cavities should be rilled early, to avoid pain and to pre- 
serve the teeth. Pain or toothache is not present until 
the cavity extends to the dental pulp. 

It is especially important for the milk teeth to be filled 
and saved until the proper time for them to be shed. If a 




Fig. 41. — Plaster casts of crooked teeth caused by adenoids. 
By permission of Dr. Roy Robinson. 

child loses them too soon, the permanent teeth are not 
ready to come down, and there will be a malformation of the 
jaw and other bones of the face. 

Decay of The Teeth. — Decay is caused by decomposi- 
tion of food in the teeth, the heat and moisture of the 
mouth hastening this process; and by evaporation of sa- 
liva, leaving on the teeth a yellowish- white substance, called 
tartar. This is good soil for fungi and the germs of decay. 
During illness tartar collects rapidly, and the mouth 
should be washed out frequently with a good, antiseptic 
mouth-wash, such as listerine, or a solution of dioxogen. 
Excessive eating of candy is always apt to injure the teeth. 
The damage is done by the sugar which is left between 



THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 67 

the teeth. It decomposes and forms lactic acid, which 
eats away the enamel. If the teeth are brushed after 
eating candy, this danger will be avoided. 

Care of the Throat. — An ordinary sore throat is an in- 
flammation of the pharynx. The soft palate or uvula fre- 
quently becomes relaxed and enlarged and, by touching 
the tongue, causes a constant, irritating cough. The 
tonsils may become inflamed, a condition known as tonsil- 
it is. The use of the tonsils is not known. They are large 
in children up to the age of thir- 
teen years, when they begin to 
shrivel, and in adult life they 
are quite small. They swell 
easily, and become hard and 
sore, making swallowing diffi- 
cult. One attack of tonsilitis 
predisposes to another. After FlG 42 _ The normal tonsils- 
many attacks the tonsils remain 

large, blocking up the throat and interfering with respira- 
tion and swallowing. Tonsilitis is a serious disease, 
accompanied by constitutional symptoms such as fever, 
headache, general aching of the body, etc. The advice 
of a physician should always be obtained. 

Spongy growths, somewhat like the tonsils in structure, 
often appear in the back of the nose and the upper back 
part of the throat. These are adenoids. They generally 
grow over the openings of the Eustachian tubes, thus 
causing deafness. They block up the nasal passages, caus- 
ing mouth-breathing, a nasal quality in the voice, and 
indistinctness of speech. 




68 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



ADENOIDS 



A schoolboy with adenoids becomes listless, inattentive, 
and indifferent, both in school and at play. His memory is 
poor and his mental capacity lessened — all this resulting 
from interference with the blood supply to the brain. He 
may even become deaf and lose the sense of smell and 
of taste, while earache, frequent colds, and indigestion 
are common results. His growth is stunted because of 

an insufficient 
supply of oxygen 
to the lungs. 

The signs of 
adenoids are 
mouth-breath- 
ing, a narrow, 
high roof to the 
mouth, irregular 
and prominent 
teeth, protrud- 
ing eyes, nasal 
speech, and a 
tendency to fre- 
quent colds. 
Enlarged tonsils 
and adenoids should be removed by a nose and throat 
specialist. The operation is not at all dangerous and 
takes, in most cases, but a very short time. (Beware of 
so-called "specialists" or quack doctors, who advertise 
themselves in newspapers and public places.) 

The change in a child after the removal of adenoids is 
sometimes amazing. An increase of from three to five 
inches in height, and six to twelve pounds in weight in a 




Fig. 43. 



THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 



69 



year, is not uncommon. He breathes better, eats and 
sleeps better, grows faster, and often surprises his teachers 
by the rapidity of his progress in school. In a short 
time, with the teaching of hygiene, this scourge of child- 
hood should be wiped out. When this is done, two-thirds 
of all the cases of deafness, one-half of all the cases of 
arrested development, and three-fourths of all the cases of 
backward children will dis- 
appear. 

In diphtheria, a grayish- 
white membrane grows over 
the tonsils and pharynx. 
Sometimes it extends to 
the nasal passages and the 
larynx, in which case the 
patient chokes to death. 
The use of diphtheria anti- 
toxin has greatly lowered 
the death rate of this much- 
dreaded disease. 

Indigestion. — Food must 
pass along the alimentary 
canal within a reasonable length of time, or indigestion 
will result. 

The symptoms of indigestion are : — Sour stomach, nau- 
sea, and vomiting, coated tongue, headaches, loss of ap- 
petite, offensive gases, constipation or diarrhea, obscure 
pain, at other times acute pain. 

The Causes of Indigestion are: — 

1. Eating too rapidly and not chewing sufficiently. If 
people would only learn to eat slowly and chew every 




Fig. 44. — A " mouth-breather." 

No one can be healthy who is obliged to 
breathe through the mouth continually. 



70 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

mouthful thoroughly, there would be very little indigestion. 
Much chewing means much saliva, and consequently a 
complete mixing of the food with it. The pleasurable 
sensation of taste is augmented by keeping the food in the 
mouth. To " Fletcherize" is to chew thoroughly. The 
word is coined from the name of Mr. Horace Fletcher of 
New York, who is an ardent advocate of thorough mas- 
tication. Copious drinking at mealtimes is bad. One 
should not drink more than a single glass of water at 
meals, as a larger quantity is apt to wash down large un- 
masticated pieces of food. Water should not be sipped 
with food, as the saliva is thus diluted. It is better to 
drink the liquid all at once, when there is no food in the 
mouth. The habit of chewing gum is particularly harm- 
ful, as it wastes a large amount of saliva. This juice on 
reaching the stomach, stimulates a corresponding flow of 
gastric juice, which in turn is wasted as there is no food to 
digest. When the next meal is taken, there is a result- 
ing deficiency of these two juices, and indigestion results. 
Further, it is a vulgar habit which is extremely annoy- 
ing to other persons who may be obliged to watch it. 

2. Eating too much at one time causes the stomach to 
become distended, in which case it cannot perform its 
work properly. The muscular movements become slower 
and the flow of gastric juice reduced. The food is not 
digested, and nausea and vomiting with headache may 
result. 

3. Eating an entire meal of one kind of food throws all 
the work of digestion on one digestive juice, while the others 
have very little to do. A meal of meat would throw most 
of the work on the gastric juice ; one of starchy vegetables 



THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 71 

would overwork the saliva and pancreatic juices, as would 
also too much candy and sweets. The latter should be 
eaten just after a meal in order to be digested with the 
other food. 

4. Eating irregularly and between meals is very bad. 
Meals should be eaten at the same hour every day, with 
as little variation as possible. Indulging between meals 
gives the digestive organs no time to rest, the appetite 
for regular meals is dulled, and there is no flow of the 
digestive juices. 

5. One of the most common causes of indigestion is iced 
drinks. A glass of ice water reduces the temperature of 
the stomach 30 , and it requires from one half hour to an 
hour to regain a normal temperature. If food is present, it 
simply lies in the stomach undigested till the temperature 
rises. In the summer time iced soft drinks are consumed 
in enormous quantities, especially soda-water, coca-cola, 
root-beer, etc. All these drinks in excess seriously impair 
digestion, and some of them contain injurious drugs. 

6. Do not talk or think of unpleasant things at the 
table. The old adage, " Laugh and grow fat," is a good 
one. Be cheerful and talkative. Tell all your funny 
stories and take your time. Anger, quarreling, melan- 
choly, sorrow, homesickness, and pain all interfere with 
the appetite and prevent digestion. 

7. Poorly cooked or unappetizingly served food is bad 
for the digestion. Food must be pleasing to the sight and 
taste to induce a proper flow of the digestive juices. A 
soiled tablecloth, chipped and dirty dishes, with general 
disorder in the service will cause indigestion, as will also 
meat cooked to a cinder, potatoes water-logged, rice half- 




72 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

raw, or food smothered in grease. A well-cooked meal, 
with the table linen spotless, the cutlery shining and clean, 
the dishes whole, the food garnished with celery, cress, or 
sliced lemon, and a centre-piece of flowers or ferns, will go 
far toward creating an appetite and aiding good digestion. 

8. Exercise or study just before or just after a meal is 

bad. It takes 
the blood away 
from the di- 
gestive organs 
and interferes 
with digestion. 
At least a half 

FOOD PREPARED UNAPPETIZINGLY. 

hour should be 
allowed before and after a meal for freedom from all 
work, both physical and mental. 

9. Lack of, or insufficient exercise brings on indigestion 
by causing a poor circulation often accompanied by a 
stagnant liver with its attendant sallow skin, a yellowing 
of the whites of the eyes, and constipation — in short, 
" biliousness." A marked yellowing of the skin is called 
jaundice. 

10. Continued overwork and overstudy injure the ner- 
vous system and there follows a lack of nervous control 
over the digestive organs which is quite essential to diges- 
tion. Nervous indigestion is one of the hardest forms to 
cure. An example of a lack of nervous control is seen in 
" nervous diarrhea." This condition is often due to worry 
or great excitement over an impending event. 

1 1 . Poor eyesight, caused by constantly straining the eyes 
injures the nervous system and results in a lack of ner- 




THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 73 

vous control, indigestion, leading to headaches, then to 
nausea, vomiting, etc. 

Constipation. — Failure to evacuate the contents of the 
large intestine daily, results in constipation and causes 
much ill-health in schoolgirls and schoolboys. A daily 
movement of the bowels is absolutely necessary. Form a 
habit of evacua- 
ting the bowels 
at the same hour 
daily, prefera- 
bly after break- 
fast. Much 
can be done by F00D PREPARED APPETIZINGLY . 

diet and exer- 
cise to prevent constipation. Coarse vegetables, fruit, 
and plenty of cool water between meals, with exercise 
in the form of walking, playing outdoor games, or house- 
work in its various forms will usually be sufficient. There 
are times, however, when an occasional purgative or medi- 
cine to move the bowels is necessary. For this purpose 
the following .drugs may be used: Castor oil, cascara, 
phosphate of soda, and magnesia. In the section on foods 
the laxative foods will be considered. 



FOOD 

Chemical Classification of Foods. — Food is any substance 
which, when taken into the body, repairs the waste and 
builds up the organism. All foods are divided into 
proteids, carbo-hydrates, fats and oils, mineral matter and 
water. 



74 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



The Proteids. — The proteids are the foods which are 
flesh-makers. Examples : Lean meat of all kinds, albumen 
or white of egg, casein or the curd in milk and cheese, 
-| the gluten or sticky part of grains, and the 
legumen of pease and beans. These last are 
the vegetable proteids. As a rule proteids 
are constipating, because they are so easily 
digested and absorbed that there is very 
little residue left in the alimentary canal. 
They are absolutely necessary to the body, 
however, as they actually replace the dying 





CORN WHITE MILK ROUND BUTTER 

MEAL BREAD STEAK 

Fig. 45. — The shaded portion in the tubes represents the comparative nutritive value of 
various foods in the quantities shown. 

tissues. The proteids are not fattening, but a person can 
withstand starvation a longer time on them than on any 
other class of foods. 

The Carbo-hydrates. — The starches and sugars are the 
carbo-hydrates. They are burnt up in the body and be- 
come a source of heat and energy, while the excess is stored 
up as fat. Examples: Vegetables, fruits, and cereals all 
belong to this class. They usually leave a residue in the 
alimentary canal and are therefore laxative. 

Fats and Oils. — These are also a source of heat and 
energy, and the excess is stored up as fat. Fats occur in 



THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 



75 




Skimmed milk. 



^i^MWmm. 



most animal food; oils, in vegetable food. Examples: 
Butter, cheese, cereals, nuts, fat meat, and fish, and oils 
such as olive, cot- 
ton-seed, and peanut. 
These foods by 
natural lubrication 
are laxative. Butter 
and cream are the 
best. Olive oil is hard 
to digest; no more 
than a teaspoonful 
should be taken at 
onetime. Substitutes 
for butter are butter- 
hie, made from beef 
and pork fat; and 
oleomargarine, made 
from beef fat. They 
both have a good food 
value. It is only be- 
cause they have been 
sold as butter, and 
have thus been made 
to command double 
their proper price, that there has been trouble with these 
products. 

Water is necessary to the body. It helps to move the 
food along the alimentary canal; it helps also to dis- 
solve the food, thus aiding the organs in their functions. 
It is found in all foods; beef contains 50% and pota- 
toes 80% water. In addition to the water present in 




Cream. 
Fig. 46. — Fat globules in milk and cream. 



76 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

food, about five or six glasses should be taken daily 
between meals. 

Classification of Foods as to Kingdom. — Animal foods: 
Meat, fish, milk and cheese, eggs and gelatin. 

Vegetable foods: Cereals, vegetables, legumes (pease 
and beans) and fruits. 

Mineral matter: The most common mineral salts 
found in the body are lime, phosphorus, iron, and common 
salt. Lime is necessary for the bones; phosphorus is found 
in nerve tissue; iron, in the red blood corpuscles; while 
salt is present in all the secretions of the body, blood and 
tears being salty to the taste. Most of the food we eat 
contains salt and we consume on an average about a 
tablespoonful of this mineral daily. 

Meats. — All meats are rich in proteids, but differ greatly 
in the ease with which they may be digested. Note the 
following : — 
Meats easy to digest: Meats hard to digest: 

Raw oysters Corned beef 

Chicken Veal 

Beefsteak Ham 

Lamb Lobster and crabs 

Mutton Pork 

Bacon Smoked and dried fish 

Liver, hearts, kidneys 

Most meats should be under, rather than over cooked, 
so as to retain the animal juices, but should not be raw. 
Veal, mutton, fish, fowl, and pork, should be thoroughly 
cooked, as they may contain small parasites which can only 
be destroyed by thorough cooking. The Hebrews wisely 
forbid the use of pork. 



THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 



77 




Fig. 47. — Trichina in pork. 



Parasites in Meat.— A parasite is an animal or plant 
which derives its nourishment directly from another 
animal or plant. In pork we may 
have the trichina spiralis, so-called 
because the larva is curled up in a 
spiral. "Measly pork" contains 
thousands of white specks which 
are these little larval forms of the 
trichina. If this meat is eaten 
raw or half-raw, the larvae are set 
free in the alimentary canal, where 
they grow and reproduce them- 
selves. The eggs rind their way 
out into the muscles, where they 
become encysted, — that is, a wall 

of tough membrane grows around each egg, forming a 
little case or "cyst" — and we have the little white specks 
again. This disease which is called trichinosis is very 
painful and may cause death. 

In beef, pork, and fish, we may find the eggs of the tape- 
worm. This is a long, flat worm, like a piece of ribbon, some- 
times reaching 
thirty to forty 
feet in length. 
It lives in the 
intestine of the 
human being 
and is very hard 

to dislodge, as it holds on to the mucous membrane by 
little hooks in its head. The tapeworm causes great pain 
and emaciation, with a ravenous appetite which cannot be 




Fig. 48. — Tape-Worm. Note enlarged head at right 



78 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

satisfied. If infected meats are thoroughly cooked, the 
eggs are rendered harmless. 

Substitutes for Meat. — When the price of meat is high, 
it is well to know some other foods which contain the same 
kind of nourishment, namely proteids, and which may be 
used as substitutes. Beans and pease, macaroni and cheese, 
eggs, milk, oatmeal, and cornmeal are all excellent substi- 
tutes for meat. 

Eggs are one of the most valuable foods, rich in proteid, 
fat, mineral matter, and salts. They are especially good for 
children. The white of egg, to be easily digested, should be 
soft, jelly-like, and tender. If boiled too long it becomes 
hard, opaque, and indigestible. 

Tests for fresh eggs: Immerse in a bowl of water. If 
the egg sinks, it is fresh; if it floats, it is stale. If a fresh 
egg be shaken close to the ear, there will be just the slight- 
est possible movement, or none at all. 

Cereals. — Cereals are an important food, especially 
good for children. They contain proteids, carbo-hydrates 
and fats. The cereals are often, however, spoiled in the 
cooking. 

Oatmeal must be thoroughly cooked. It should be 
soaked overnight, and cooked the following morning. It 
is one of the cheapest of foods, as it can be bought for 
five cents a pound. Cornmeal made into a mush and 
served with milk is a perfect food. Two pounds may be 
bought for five cents. Rice is rich in starch. It should 
always be steamed thoroughly. Hominy — a preparation 
of Indian corn — is a valuable food and may be served as 
a vegetable. 



THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 79 

The breakfast foods which are sold so generally are, as a 
rule, wholesome enough, but one has to eat a large quan- 
tity at one time to get even a small amount of true 
nourishment. 

Bread. — Bread and butter, with milk, make a perfect 
food. White bread contains more starch than other kinds ; 
brown bread, more gluten or proteid. Hot breads are 
very indigestible; all bread should be at least one day 
old. Bread and molasses is good for children; the molas- 
ses is a laxative and contains much sugar. It may be 
served with cereals as well as w r ith bread. Toasting bread 
partially digests it by changing the starch into sugar, a 
change which is noticeable in the sweet flavor of the 
crust. 

Vegetables may be Heavy or Green. — The heavy vege- 
tables are the roots and tubers. They contain more 
nourishment than the others, though they are generally 
constipating. Examples: Potatoes, beets, onions, parsnips, 
turnips, carrots. 

The green vegetables are the leaves, stalks, or flowers of 
plants; they are generally laxative. Examples: Cab- 
bage, cauliflower, spinach, celery, water-cress, lettuce and 
asparagus. 

Certain vegetables have special properties as, spinach, 
which is laxative; asparagus, diuretic (causing increased 
activity of the kidneys) ; rhubarb — a good spring tonic, 
purgative; beets, very rich in sugar; potatoes, rich in 
potash just under the skin, to obtain which they should 
be cooked in their jackets. 

A Mixed Diet the Best.— This fact is shown physiologic- 



80 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

ally by the character of the teeth and of the alimentary 
canal, which indicate a provision for all kinds of food. 

Examples of a mixed diet : Bread and butter, rice and 
milk, macaroni and cheese, fat pork and beans, lettuce and 
oil. 

Fruits. — Fruits contain much water and mineral acids, 
and are valuable because the taste and odor cause the diges- 
tive juices to flow. Some fruits are laxative and some are 
tonic. The laxative fruits are: Figs, dates, prunes, apples, 
and oranges. Those containing the most sugar are apples, 
sweet cherries, grapes, and pears. Those containing the 
least sugar are plums, peaches, apricots, and raspberries. 
Grape-fruit, strawberries, and currants are acid fruits. 

Bananas are very rich in starch and therefore should be 
fully ripe before eating. They are often indigestible be- 
cause they are eaten too rapidly and swallowed in lumps. 
If eaten ripe and thoroughly chewed they are a good food. 
Pineapple juice contains a digestive ferment similar to 
pepsin, which digests proteids. All fruits eaten raw 
should be washed free o dirt and germs. Overripe or 
unripe fruit will cause indigestion. 

Nuts. — These form an important food because they con- 
tain much oil and fat. There is one exception — the chest- 
nut — which is rich in starch rather than oil and may be 
served boiled as a vegetable. 

Some nuts are laxative, such as butternuts, English 
walnuts, and pecan nuts. They should always be eaten 
with a meal and not between meals. A little salt will 
increase their digestibility. 

Adulteration of Food. — A food is said to be adulterated 



THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 



81 



when a cheaper material is combined with it, or some chemi- 
cal used to preserve it. 

Foods frequently adulterated with cheaper material are 
flour, coffee, cocoa, pepper, and olive oil. Many canned 
vegetables have sodium benzoate in them. Though the 
quantity is small, a persistent use will finally injure the 
body. Formalin is used to preserve milk. Copper is used 
in canning pease and beans to give these vegetables a 
brighter green color. Salicylic acid, alum, and aniline dyes 
are also used. Many cheap candies are brightly colored 




COOKING LABORATORY, WILLIAM PENN HIGH SCHOOL FOR GIRLS. 



with aniline dyes, some of which are poisonous. The 
recent national pure food laws should do much to lessen the 
wholesale adulteration of much of the food we eat, and to 
encourage the attention now being given to food sanitation.* 
Cooking Makes Food More Digestible. — Cooked food 

*Food and Drugs Act, June 30, 1906. 



82 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

is more appetizing in taste and often in appearance. Para- 
sites and germs are killed by the great heat in cooking. 

Meats should be broiled, baked, roasted, or boiled — 
never fried. Frying coats the food with grease. It is 
difficult for the digestive juices to penetrate this coat of 
grease in performing their work of digestion. 

Vegetables as a rule require a long time to cook. They 
should be boiled until tender. 

Cereals should cook from one-half to three hours. 

In making soups, the meat and vegetables should be put 
on in cold water and allowed to simmer, but not to boil. 
This process extracts all the essence from the meat. 

Diet for constipation: Brown bread, green vegetables, 
such as spinach, corn, tomatoes, beets, onions, with plenty 
of fruit, such as figs, dates, apples, oranges, and plenty of 
water. Coffee is laxative. 

Diet for diarrhea: White bread, boiled rice, boiled 
milk, meat, eggs, pease, beans, and potatoes. Tea is con- 
stipating. All food should be taken lukewarm, never very 
hot nor very cold, as both heat and cold increase peristalsis. 

Special Foods. — One often sees advertisements of skin 
food, muscle food, nerve and brain foods. No such foods 
exist. All food which is assimilated is converted into blood, 
and thus carried to all parts of the body alike. No one article 
of food may be said to nourish one particular organ, yet 
each cell selects from the blood exactly the ingredient needed 
for its own rejuvenation, — is, in other words, selective. 

Condiments, such as mustard, pepper, vinegar, paprika, 
horse-radish, Worcestershire sauce, etc., are stimulants 
to the saliva and gastric juice, and whet the appetite. 



THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 



83 



Used in small quantities, they promote digestion; in excess 
they congest and inflame the mucous lining of the stomach. 




A MODERN HYGIENIC HOUSE REFRIGERATOR. 



Preservation of Food. — In order to preserve foods, they 
are put in cold storage, as cold prevents the growth of 
bacteria and molds. Meat and eggs are sometimes kept in 
this way for years and then unlawfully sold as fresh. 
Meats may also be dried, smoked or salted, to prevent the 
growth of bacteria. 



8 4 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



Fruits and vegetables which have been partly cooked 
and then sealed in airtight cans and glass jars will keep 
indefinitely. When a can is opened the contents should 
be eaten at once. If any remains, it should never be re- 
turned to the can, as it may thus become poisonous. 

Ptomaine or Food Poisoning. — Ptomaine poisoning may 
result from the use of canned fish, meat or vegetables, in 
which the bacteria were not all killed in the cooking. Ice- 
cream soured in the cans, and canned lobsters and crabs, 
are especially dangerous. The poisoning shows itself by 
severe, colicky pain in the abdomen, vomiting, diarrhea, 
and great prostration. 

Avoid such combinations as ice-cream and shellfish, milk 
and cucumbers, oysters and sweet desserts, as the combi- 
nation of these foods favors decomposition and poisoning 
may result. 

School Breakfasts and Luncheons. — Many students do 
not eat enough breakfast. A roll and a cup of coffee or 
cocoa after fasting all night is not sufficient to sustain the 
body for from three to five hours of school work. A sub- 
stantial breakfast or luncheon can be based on the fol- 
lowing: 

Breakfast Menus 

2 3 

Apple and grapes 
Cornmeal mush 
Bacon and egg 
Bread and butter 
Warm milk 



i 

Orange 
Oatmeal 
Broiled chop 
Bread and butter 
Cocoa or milk 



Grape-fruit 
Cream of wheat 
Broiled beefsteak 
Baked potato 
Bread and butter 
Cocoa 





THE 


DIGESTIVE SYSTE 
Luncheon Menus 


M 85 


I 

Soup 




2 

Soup 


3 
Soup 


Fat pork and 




Macaroni and 


Hot roast beef 


beans 




cheese 


sandwich 


Bread and butter 


Bread and butter 


Potato 


Rice pudding 




Orange and dates 


Apple and figs 


Cocoa 




Cocoa 


Milk 



Overweight. — Some students show a tendency to over- 
fatness, which is due — in part at least — to an improper diet 
and lack of sufficient exercise. The fat girl is usually of a 
calm temperament, with no tendency to worry. She rests 
frequently, sleeps well, moves slowly, and eats plenty of 
good, rich food. In order to reduce her fat she must 
observe the following rules: 

i. Never sleep more than seven hours at night, and take 
no naps in the daytime. An exception must here be made 
of the schoolgirl; it is necessary for her to have eight or 
nine hours sleep for the proper performance of her school 
duties, and in order to study to advantage. 

2. Exercise freely every day. Learn to move quickly 
and to keep moving all the time. Stand whenever possible, 
instead of sitting down. 

3. Avoid sugars and starches. Drink as little as possible, 
and eat food dry. Avoid such articles of diet as cake, 
candy, ice-cream, milk and cream, rich soups, breakfast 
foods, heavy vegetables, and alcoholic beverages, such as 
wine and cider. 

4. Take a cool sponge bath in the morning, followed by a 
brisk rub with a coarse towel, and some running exercises. 



86 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

Underweight. — The thin girl is nervous; moves quickly; 
sleeps lightly; works hard all the time; worries over every- 
thing; and often has indigestion from eating too fast. In 
order to take on fat, she must observe the following rules : 

i . Sleep at least nine hours at night and take a nap each 
afternoon. 

2. Learn to move slowly, to rest frequently and relax 
every muscle. 

3. Stop worrying and avoid thinking too long on any 
one subject. 

4. Adopt a diet of cereals, starchy vegetables and fruits, 
fat meats, butter and cream, sweets, such as figs, dates, 
syrup and honey. Avoid acids, such as pickles, vinegar, 
etc., and green vegetables. 

5. Take warm baths and keep the body warm and com- 
fortable. 

6. Secure plenty of sunshine and fresh air and, if possible, 
daily massage. 

Beverages. — Beverages may be classified as foods and 
stimulants. The food beverages are milk, chocolate, and 
cocoa. The stimulating beverages are tea, coffee, and beef- 
tea. 

Milk. — Milk is the most important of all beverages as 
well as the cheapest. It is the best single article in the diet 
for daily use. Its importance and cheapness have been 
overlooked and families would be better nourished if a part 
of the money which they now spend for meat were used to 
buy milk. During the first year of life it is a universal 
food, and agrees with all children. There may be excep- 
tions to this rule, but they are very rare. Milk contains 



THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 



87 



proteid (casein), fat (cream), carbo-hydrates (milk-sugar), 
water and mineral matter (lime). It is a perfect food 
for children, 
but not for 
adults. If ac- 
companied, 
however, by 
some starchy 
food, such 
as bread 
and pota- 
toes, it forms 
a splendid 
food for the 
working- 
man. Its 
value lies, 
not in the 
fact that it 
is so highly 
nutritious, 
but that it is 
almost com- 
pletely absorbed and digested; though, for this last rea- 
son, it is also constipating. Note the following: 

One quart of milk is about equal in food value to any 
one of the following: f lb. of lean round beef; eight eggs; 
2 lbs. of potatoes; 2 lbs. of chicken; 4 lbs. of beets or cab- 
bage; 6 lbs. of spinach; £ lb. of butter; \ lb. of wheat flour; 
i lb. of cheese. — The New York Milk Committee. 




A FIVE-MONTHS-OLD BABY WHO HAS BEEN FED ON NOTHING 
BLT MILK FROM BIRTH. 



88 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



Compare the prices of these foods with that of milk, con- 
sider the time needed to prepare them for the table, the 
amount of gas or coal required, the amount of waste, and 
then realize how cheap and good a food milk really is. 
Milk-borne diseases, moreover, are far less common than the 
under-feeding which results from the use of too little milk. 
Skim milk is milk with the top cream removed. It con- 
tains all the nourishment of the whole milk but fat, — the 
element which supplies heat and energy. 

Buttermilk is milk in which a bacteriological change has 
occurred, after the fat has been removed as butter. Butter- 
milk is as nourishing as skim milk and especially valuable 
as a germicide in the intestinal tract. 

Condensed milk is milk which has been heated and 
evaporated to one-third or one-fourth its former bulk. It 
may or may not be sweetened; the unsweetened is better. 
It is usually diluted ten times and cream added, for infants 
one month old. Babies seem to thrive on it for a while. 
It makes them fat from excess of sugar, but the flesh is 
not firm. They develop poorly and are unable to resist 
disease, and finally develop the condition called rickets. It 

also causes lactic acid fer- 
mentation, diarrhea and in- 
flammation of the mouth. 

Modified milk is best for 
babies who have the mis- 
fortune to be deprived of 
mother's milk; in all large 
cities it may be obtained at 
modified milk stations or at 
any hospital. It consists of 




Fig. 49. — Sterilizing apparatus. 



THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 



89 




cow's milk, cream, milk-sugar, lime water, and plain 
water, in certain proportions, according to the age of 
the child. It is simple 
to prepare and is, by 
far, the best and safest 
food for infants. The 
Health Department 
issues circulars giving 
directions for its prepa- 
ration. 

Pasteurized milk. The 
name is derived from a 
French investigator, 
Louis Pasteur, who in- 
vented the process. 
The milk is heated to 
1 68° Fahr. and kept at 
that point for twenty 
minutes. This process 

kills many bacteria which produce souring of the milk and 
most of the disease-producing bacteria. Pasteurizing 
milk delays souring and does not affect the quality in any 
way. Boiling absolutely kills all germs, but it also changes 
the composition of the milk, making it harder to digest 
and more constipating. 

Adulteration of milk. Milk is often watered, and 
sometimes chemicals, such as formalin, are added to 
make it remain sweet. This adulteration is forbidden 
by the Food and Drugs Act; and there are now in all large 
cities inspectors whose duty it is to examine all milk sold 
there. 



Fig. 50. — The black square represents the bacteria 
in un-Pasteurized milk. After Pasteurization the 
bacteria are reduced to the amount indicated by 
the white square. 

(By permission of Dt. H. L. Russel.) 



9° 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



Diseases conveyed by milk. — Many diseases are con- 
veyed by milk, the most important being tuberculosis, 
typhoid fever, diphtheria, scarlatina, and tonsilitis. Cows 
suffering from tuberculosis will give tubercular milk, the 
use of which will produce tuberculosis in the human being. 
All large dairy herds are now examined periodically by 
what is called the tuberculin test. If the test is positive, 




Used by courtesy of Brookside Jarms. 

A sanitary bottling room. (Notice the hygienic costumes of the men. ) 



the cattle are killed. The utmost cleanliness is also ob- 
served in all large dairies. The stables are kept clean, the 
milkers wear sterilized gloves, and the milk is put up in 
glass bottles, sealed with paraffined paste-board tops. This 
precaution prevents dust and dirt from getting into the 
milk. When the germs of infectious diseases, such as 
typhoid, diphtheria, and scarlatina, are present in milk they 



THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 91 

find their way there, not from the cow, but from unclean- 
liness somewhere between the dairy and the consumer: it 
may be from dirty hands, clothing or water; from flies; or 







. 00 o 0q - O .o O 

Fig. 51. — A, clean milk, showing no bacteria ; B, dirty milk, containing many bacteria. 



from dirty vessels for holding the milk. The germs thrive 
in milk, reproduce very rapidly, and are easily carried in 
the milk to the consumer. 

Other Food Beverages. — - Chocolate and cocoa are both 
food beverages, made from the seeds of the cacao tree. 
Chocolate contains starch, proteid, and a large percentage 
of fat. Because of its richness, the fat is removed from 
chocolate by certain processes and cocoa is the result. 
Cocoa is not so rich as chocolate and is a good drink for 
children. 

The Stimulating Beverages. — These are tea, coffee, and 
beef-tea. Stimulants have no food value in themselves, but 
hasten the action of the digestive fluids. 

Tea is the dried leaves of a bush grown in China and India. 
There are two varieties — green and black. Green tea has 
been prohibited in the United States by a recent law, which 



92 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

went into effect May, 191 2. The green color is caused by 
drying the tea on copper plates, a process which renders 
the tea injurious. Tea contains tannic acid, an astringent 
which injures the lining of the stomach and intestines, and % 
theine, the active principle, which gives the stimulating 
quality. If tea is boiled, a much larger amount of tannin 
is liberated and the bad effect is increased. In excess, tea 
causes indigestion, flatulence, constipation, and nervousness. 
Tea retards the action of the saliva; therefore, if tea is 
taken, it should not be sipped with a meal, but should be 
drunk after all the food is eaten. 

To make tea properly, first scald out the teapot with boil- 
ing water to heat the pot; then add freshly-boiled water to 
the leaves in the proportion of one teaspoonful to each 
person ; allow it to steep for a few minutes, and pour 
it off. By this method but little tannin enters the de- 
coction. Sugar and milk added to tea increase its food 
value. 

Coffee is. the roasted berry of a plant grown mostly in 
Porto Rico and Brazil. It contains tannic acid — an astrin- 
gent — and a substance called caffeine, which gives the stim- 
ulating quality. Black coffee contains an extra amount of 
tannin. Sugar and milk or cream increase its food value, 
though some authorities maintain that milk makes it more 
indigestible. Coffee is laxative; in excess it causes pal- 
pitation of the heart, irregular heart-beat, nervousness, and 
insomnia or sleeplessness. 

Beef-tea is valuable as a flavoring agent or as a stimulant, 
not as a food. A dog fed entirely on beef-tea will starve 
to death in a month. It contains the extract and flavor of 
the meat without the coagulated albumen which represents 



THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 93 

the real food value. It stimulates the digestive juices to 
work on the food which may be eaten later. 

A better product than beef -tea is beef juice, which is a 
true food. This may be prepared by broiling a beefsteak 
slightly to free the juices and then squeezing the juice out, 
adding salt and serving at once. One pound of lean meat 
yields about three or four ounces of juice. 



VI. — THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 

The Circulatory System. — The circulatory system con- 
sists of the heart, arteries and veins, capillaries and lym- 
phatics. 

The heart is the pump which keeps the blood in motion. 
The arteries carry pure oxygenated blood to the organs. 
The veins and lymphatics carry impure blood back to 
the heart. The capillaries connect the arteries with the 
veins. 

The spleen is a dark red organ lying to the left of the 
stomach, in the abdominal cavity. Its exact function is 
not known, but it is supposed to manufacture the blood 
corpuscles. In certain blood and infectious diseases, as in 
typhoid fever, the spleen becomes very much enlarged. 

The ductless glands are the thyroid, at the base of the 
neck, the two supra-renal capsules lying just above the 
kidneys, and the pituitary body at the base of the brain. 

The thyroid, or most important of these glands, is a flat, 
two-lobed gland at the base of the neck in front of the 
trachea. When it becomes enlarged, it produces a con- 
dition called goitre. If it is entirely removed, the patient 
will not survive. It secretes a fluid which has something 
to do with the growth and development of the body; when 
this fluid is lacking, the deficiency may be supplied by 
the patient's taking thyroid extract. This extract is ob- 

94 



THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 



95 



d, External Jugular Vein 

Internal Jugular Vein 




Subclavian Artery 
Subclavian Vein 
I, Carotid Artery 



Aorta 
, Pre-caval Vein 



IV, Post-caval Vein 



/"Gastric Artery 
J Splenic Artery 
Hepotic Artery 
^Pancreatic Artery 

g, Renal Veins 
// s, Renal Arteries 



7, Iliac Arteries 
i, Iliac Veins 



Fig 52. — Distribution of arteries and veins. 



9 6 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



tained from calves, pigs, and goats, is especially prepared, 
and should be administered only by experts. 



Blood. 



The blood is composed of a colorless liquid 
called plasma, in which 
float millions of little 
bodies called red and 
white blood corpuscles. 
The red corpuscles are 
five hundred times more 
numerous than the 
white. They are plate- 
like little bodies which 
give the red color to the 
blood. They are full 
of hemoglobin — the 
coloring matter of the 
blood. 







^W:'% 


° * • ° ^ 




« ^® ^ m 


m 


a© ._0:I 


m: J ' ■ f% M 

^ M 







Fig. 53. — Red blood cells. 



— and carry oxygen to the tissues to build 
them up. 

The white corpuscles are two or three 
times as large as the red. Since they are 
transparent they have to be stained in 
order to be seen under the microscope. 
They are the phagocytes, or fighting soldiers 
of the blood, as they eat up and digest 
disease germs. Wherever there is inflam- 
mation, the phagocytes gather in large 
numbers. When they die they form matter 
or pus, such as may be seen in a boil or 
abscess. 




Fig. 54.— White blood 
cells destroying bac- 
teria. 



THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 



97 



Blood corpuscles are made in the red marrow of the long 
bones, in the lymph glands, and probably in the spleen also. 




Fig. 55. — Escape of white corpuscles from a small blood vessel, (Hall). At A the 
conditions are normal, but at B some excitation in the surrounding tissue leads to 
a migration of corpuscles, i, 2, and 3 show different stages of the passage. 



Uses of the Blood. — The blood feeds the tissues with the 
digested food (plasma) and with oxygen (red corpuscles), 
regulates the heat of the body and, gathering waste ma- 
terial from the tissues, carries it (lymph) to those organs 
whose function it is to expel it from the body. 

Clotting. When exposed to air, blood separates into a 
thick, jelly-like mass called the clot, and a yellowish fluid 
called serum. The clot consists of the corpuscles entangled 
in a substance called fibrin. The serum is mainly the plasma. 
Clotting is Nature's method of stopping bleeding. 

Arterial and Venous Blood. Arterial or pure blood comes 
from the heart, is bright red in color, and rich in oxygen. 
Venous blood goes to the heart, is dark purple in color, and 



9 8 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



full of carbon dioxide, — a poison which is gathered from 
the tissues after they have used up the oxygen. 

The Heart. — The heart is a conical organ, about as large 
as the fist, placed in the middle of the chest between the 
lungs. It is composed of involuntary muscle and is very 
strong. It has four cavities. The upper two are small and 



To Head and Arms 



Pre-caval Vei 



Right Auricle 




Aorta 



Pulmonary Artery 
Left Auricle 



Left Ventricle 



Apex 



Fig 56. — The heart, from the front. 



are called auricles; the lower, ventricles. The left ventricle 
has the thickest walls, because the blood is pumped from 
it into the great artery, the aorta, to be distributed to the 
various parts of the body. Between the auricles and ven- 
tricles and between the ventricles and the great blood 
vessels are delicate little valves of membrane, which al- 
low the blood to pass in only one direction. Any disease 
of these valves, upsetting the regular flow of the blood, 
causes serious disorder. 

The pulse records each wave or impulse of blood passing 



THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 



99 



through the arteries ; its beat keeps time with the beating 
of the heart. It may be felt best in the radial artery at 
the wrist and the carotid artery on either side of the 
throat. It is caused by the heart forcing, at every beat, 
about six ounces of blood into the already filled great ar- 
teries (pulmonary and aorta) at the base of the heart. 



Aorta 
Left Pulmonary Artery 

Left Pulmonary Veins 
Left Auricle 




Pre-caval Vein 

Right Pulmonary Artery 

Right Pulmonary Veins 



Post-caval Vein 



Right Auricle 



Fig. 57. — The heart, from behind. 



The arterial walls, being elastic, expand to accommodate 
this increased supply of blood. The character of the pulse 
is very important, since sickness always affects the heart, 
and much may be learned from the variations in strength 
and frequency of the pulse. 

The Arteries. — The arteries are elastic and muscular 
tubes which carry the blood from the heart. The first 
and largest artery proceeds from the left ventricle and is 
called the ascending aorta. It ascends for about two inches, 
then arches over behind the heart and passes down through 
the diaphragm, dividing in the lower abdomen into the two 



100 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



Endothelium — - 



The outer 

coat 



large arteries, which eventually go, one to each leg. From 

the arch of the aorta large branches arise which supply 

the head and arms. From the 

descending aorta, other large 

branches supply the abdominal 

organs. 

The Capillaries. — These are 
very minute vessels which con- 
nect the small ends of the 
arteries with the beginnings of 
the veins. The walls of the 
capillaries are very thin, allow- 
ing the plasma, which becomes 
lymph in the tissue cells, to 
filter through. The corpuscles 
cannot pass through, but the oxygen, being a gas, readily 
passes through the capillary walls and enters the lymph, 
which bathes the cells of the tissue. Carbon dioxide 

then passes back 
through the walls 
into the blood. 
This exchange of 
gases takes place 
between the 
blood and the tis- 
sues. 




Fig. 58. — Coats of a small artery. 




Fig. 59. — Artery, Capillaries, and Vein. The shading 
indicates the change in the color of the blood. 



The Veins.— 
The walls of the 
veins, which carry venous blood to the heart, are thinner 
than those of the arteries. The two largest veins collect 



THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 



101 



N 




Vein laid 
open 



k^KT? 



Open Shut 

Fig. 60. — Valves of the veins. 



the venous blood from the 
head, arms, trunk and legs. 
The veins are supplied with 
little valves, which allow the 
blood to flow in only one 
direction, that is toward the 
heart. 

Circulation of the Blood. — 
The blood „ 



is forced 
from the left ventricle into the aorta, 
and finally through smaller arteries 
and capillaries to the tissues. It is 
taken up from the tissues by the 
small veins and lymphatics, and 
finally emptied as impure blood into 
the right auricle. It then passes 
into the right ventricle, through the 
pulmonary artery (the only artery 
carrying impure blood) to the lungs, 
where it is oxygenated. From the 
lungs the purified blood is collected, 
passed through the pulmonary veins 
(the only veins carrying pure blood) 
into the left auricle, then into the 
left ventricle. The passage of the 
blood through the lungs is called the 
pulmonary circulation; the passage 
through the body and back is called 
the systemic circulation. 

The passage of blood from the 




Fig. 6i. — Diagram of the cir- 
culation, showing in general the 
work done by each part of the 
heart. The right ventricle forces 
the blood through the lungs and 
into the left auricle. The left 
ventricle forces blood through all 
parts of the body and back to th e 
right auricle. The auricles force 
blood into the ventricles. 



102 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



abdominal organs through the portal vein to the liver 'is 
called the portal circulation. 

The Lymphatic System. — The lymphatic system consists 
of lymi>h spaces, tubes {lymphatics) and glands. When the 



Right Lymph Vein 




Junction of Thoracic 
Duct with Left Sub- 
clavian Vein 



Main Lymph Vein 
(Thoracic Duct) 



Intestine 



Lymphatic Glands 



FlG. 62. — Lymph veins (lymphatics). 



blood plasma niters through the capillaries or tiny blood 
vessels and bathes the cells of the different organs, it is 
called lymph. Lymph conveys material from the blood for 
building up the tissues, and collects the waste materials. 
The lymphatics are small tubes which collect the lymph 



THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 103 

when filled with waste products from the blood. These 
tubes finally unite in the left and right thoracic ducts, 
which empty into a large vein in the neck. 

The lymphatic glands are enlargements of the lymphatic 
tubes; their function is to strain out bacteria or any harm- 
ful substance in the lymph. They are especially numerous 
under the arms, in the groins, and in the neck. The white 
blood corpuscles are manufactured in these glands. 

Any infection in any part of the body is always fol- 
lowed by enlargement of the nearest lymph glands in their 
efforts to strain out and destroy the bacteria in the lymph. 
A decayed tooth will cause enlarged glands under the 
jaw, and an infected hand will cause enlargement of the 
glands in the arm-pit. Enlarged glands on the side of the 
neck are often tubercular and the condition is called 
scrofula. 

One of the greatest benefits derived from exercise is the 
increased circulation of l)Tnph in the lymph spaces and 
a more rapid carrying off of impurities. Passive exercise 
or massage has the same effect. 

HYGIENE OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 

The Quantity of Blood and its Distribution.— The body 
contains between five and six quarts of blood. The harder 
an organ works the more blood it requires. The whole 
amount of blood in the body cannot be suddenly increased, 
but the muscular coat of the arteries supplying any one 
organ may temporarily relax and allow more blood to pass 
through it, other organs receiving proportionally less, mean- 
while. While one is studying, the brain gets more blood 



104 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

than usual; during exercise the muscles get more; when 
digestion is in progress, the digestive organs get more 
than other parts of the body. 

Purification of the Blood. — Good food, pure air, sleep, 
and plenty of exercise are necessary for healthy blood. 
Patent medicines are sold as " blood purifiers" but such 
remedies are not to be relied upon. The blood is purified, 
not by putting anything into it, but by extracting the im- 
purities as it passes through the skin and kidneys, lungs 
and liver. 

A few hours after food is eaten, the nutritive material 
in the blood is found to be increased. Pure air brings 
an increased supply of oxygen to the red blood corpuscles 
and the escape, in the form of carbon dioxide, of the im- 
purities. 

Sleep permits the exhausted blood cells to be repaired 
and renewed because the blood is not then being used by 
any organ. Loss of sleep is shown by a pale skin, which 
indicates the depleted condition of the blood. 

Exercise improves the circulation in the following man- 
ner: During exercise the muscles use more oxygen, thus 
causing a more rapid extraction of waste material. The 
muscles demand more oxygen and consequently more 
blood. Through certain nervous impulses, the heart 
beats faster in order to drive a larger volume of blood 
through the lungs to be purified and carried to the hungry 
muscles. 

Excessive exercise may injure the heart by dilating it or 
by making it enlarge too rapidly. This condition is often 
found in athletes and gymnasts. 



THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 



105 




Exposed Places of Main Arteries. 



106 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

Disease of the Heart.— The strenuous life led by many 
people to-day causes the heart to wear out too soon. The 
delicate valves in the arteries and veins often become 
the seat of inflammation following infectious diseases, 
such as typhoid fever, rheumatic fever, diphtheria, and 
influenza, and the valvular action becomes insufficient, re- 
sulting in a leakage of the blood backward. Palpitation 
of the heart may indicate disease of the organ, or it may be 
due to indigestion, but in either case a physician should be 
consulted. Boys and girls suffering from heart trouble 
should lead quiet lives and avoid excessive exercise, such as 
dancing, skating, gymnastic work, and running upstairs. 

In old age the arteries lose their elasticity, and become 
hard and brittle. When an artery in the brain breaks, a 
hemorrhage follows, a clot forms, and the patient has a 
" stroke of apoplexy," or paralysis of one side of the body. 

Hemorrhage. — A bruise is due to hemorrhage from the 
capillaries under the skin. Apply hot water and gentle 
massage. For ordinary bleeding, wash with clean, cold 
water, whereupon the blood will form a clot and the bleeding 
will stop. Ice or very hot water will help to stop the oozing 
from any surface. 

In case of bleeding from a large wound, arterial blood 
may be recognized by its bright red color and by the fact 
that it comes in spurts, corresponding to the heart-beat. 
Pressure should be applied on that side of the wound next 
the heart. In the case of venous blood, which is dark red or 
purple and flows slowly, pressure should be made on the side 
away from the heart. Very strong pressure may be obtained 
by means of a tourniquet, which consists of a bandage of any 



THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 



107 



kind tied in a knot through which is thrust a stick. The 
stick is then twisted as the spoke of a wheel, until the ban- 
dage becomes tight enough to stop the bleeding. 

The adult body contains about five or six quarts of 
blood. A hemorrhage of a quart is not necessarily serious, 




STOPPING HEMORRHAGE BY MEAN'S OF A TOURNIQUET AS FIRST AID IN AN ACCIDENT. 



and three quarts may be lost without resulting in death. As 
a last resort when a person has lost much blood, the loss 
may be made up by injecting a solution of salt, called 
normal salt solution, into the bowel, the veins, or under the 
skin. Of course, this must be done by a skilled physician. 
Inflammation. — This is congestion of the blood in a 



ic58< 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



part where the vessels are so strained or injured that the 
red corpuscles pass through the capillary walls into the 
tissues. It is always accompanied with heat, redness, 
pain, and swelling. The names of diseases ending in "itis" 
mean an inflammation of the part named: as, tonsilitis, 
inflammation of the tonsils; appendicitis, inflammation of 
the appendix. 

Antitoxins, Vaccines, and Bacterins. — Disease germs 
often get into the blood. When this happens the white blood 

corpuscles multiply and liter- 
ally "eat them up." There 
are also substances formed 
in the plasma to fight 
against disease, which may be 
called antitoxins or bacterins. 
These antitoxins are also found 
in the lower animals, and be- 
cause of this fact the blood 
serum of certain animals is 
used to increase the power of 
the human body to combat 
disease; for instance, in such 
diseases as diphtheria, hydro- 
phobia, pneumonia, and tetanus, injections of animal se- 
rum have been made with great success, and have saved 
thousands of lives. It is possible that in the future all 
diseases will be treated in this way. 




Fig. 63. — How antitoxin is obtained from 
an inoculated horse. 



VII. — THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 

The Respiratory System. — The respiratory system con- 
sists of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea or windpipe, 
bronchi and lungs. 

The Nose. — The nose consists of two passages, separated 
by the nasal septum, opening at the back into the pharynx. 
The passages are lined with a delicate membrane which 
secretes mucus. This secretion has the power of destroy- 
ing germs. The membrane 
contains hairs and little 
processes called cilia, or 
ciliumns, which help to 
strain dust and dirt from 
the air. 

The nasal duct carries the 
tears from the inner corner 
of the eye into the nose. 
In weeping, the tears over- 
flow, because the duct is too 
small to contain them all. 

The nerve of smell is dis- 
tributed throughout the F , IG - 6 +- Model of sectioh thr 7* the head - 

° showing upper air passages and other parts. 

membrane in the Upper I. Left nostril. 2. Pharynx. 3. Tongue 

r , -i and cavity of mouth. 4. Larynx. 5. Trachea, 

part Of the nOSe. 6 (Esophagus. 

109 




no 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



The Pharynx. — The pharynx, popularly called the 
throat, is the large cavity back of the mouth into which 
the nasal passages open. The Eustachian tubes, leading 
from the middle ear, open into the upper part of the phar- 
ynx; the oesophagus and windpipe open from the lower 
part. On each side of the root of the tongue is one of the 
tonsils, while a third, or lingual tonsil, is present at the 
middle of the base of the tongue. The uvula, a little soft, 
red body, hangs down from the soft palate. 



Epiglottis 
Base of Tongue 

Hyoid Bone 

False Vocal Cord 
Ventricle 
Vocal Cord 



Cartilage 



Trachea 



Longitudinal sections of the larynx. 





From Right to Left 
Fig. 65 - 



Median 



Larynx. — At the top of the trachea is the cartilaginous 
larynx, or voice-box. It shows on the outside as the Adam's 
apple. The trachea is covered by a lid called the epi- 
glottis. It closes by a sort of hinge at the front, thus allow- 
ing the food to pass down over it, when closed. Inside 
the larynx are the two vocal cords, stretched from front to 
back. The passage of air between the vocal cords causes 
them to vibrate, thus producing the voire. When these 



THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 



in 



sounds are modified by the lips, teeth, palate, and tongue, 
speech is the result. In men, the voice is deep because the 
cords are longer and wider apart. The shrill, high-pitched 
voice of women is due to their shorter vocal cords. 

When the nose is stopped up and we use the mouth in 
breathing, we say the voice is nasal. The term is a mis- 
nomer, as the voice, under such conditions does not pass 
through the nose at all. A hoarse voice is due to the 
swelling and inflammation of the cords. 

The Trachea. — The trachea is the windpipe. It is 
about four inches long and is composed of incomplete, or 
C-shaped rings 

Ciliums 



Nucleus 



r 0l 



■ i; ) 'ft ! '< 



Fig. 66. — Ciliated cells lining the air tubes (x 300). 



of cartilage, the 
opening of the C 
being toward 
the back to allow 
room for the ex- 
pansion of the 
oesophagus when 
it is full of food. On entering the chest the trachea 
divides into the right and left bronchi, and these in turn 
subdivide into the bronchial tubes. The trachea and 
bronchial tubes are lined with ciliated mucous membrane 
similar to that in the nose, which helps to strain out 
any dust or foreign particles in the air passing through 
them. 

The Lungs. — The two lungs, with the heart, great blood 
vessels, and oesophagus, occupy the entire chest cavity. 
The lungs are pinkish, spongy organs, covered with a 
smooth, glistening membrane called the pleura. The 



112 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



chest wall is lined with the same membrane. The bases of 
the lungs rest on the diaphragm, the large muscle which sep- 
arates the chest from the abdomen, while their apices rise 

about an inch 
above the collar- 
bone on either side. 
The bronchial 
tubes subdivide re- 
peatedly, until they 
finally end in the 
groups of air-cells 
of which the lung 
substance is com- 
posed. 

Purification of 
Blood.— The walls 
of these air-cells 
are as thin as tis- 
sue paper and are 
covered with a net- 
work of capillaries. 
The oxygen in the 
inspired air passes 
through these walls into the red blood corpuscles, while 
the carbon dioxide in the impure blood passes through 
these walls in the opposite direction into the air-cells and 
is finally expired. The air supply must be constantly 
changed, and this is done by the aid of certain muscles, 
the movements of which constitute breathing. 

When the cavity of the chest is enlarged by the action of 
the diaphragm and the muscles attached to the ribs, air 




7> r 



Fig. 67. - Lungs and air passages seen from the front. The 
right lung shows the lobes and their divisions, the lobules. 
The tissue of the left lung has been dissected away to 
show the air tubes. 



THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 



"3 



flows into the lungs, filling them, and we have inspiration. 
When these muscles relax and the pressure of the ribs on 
the lungs causes the air to be breathed out, we have expira- 
tion. This occurs, normally, about fifteen times a minute, 




Increased 
Air Space 




Inspiration Expiration 

Fig. 68.— Sections of the body in inspiration and expiration. 



Expired air is warmer than inspired air and it contains 
impurities and water. 

Lung capacity. In ordinary breathing, about one pint 
of air passes in and out at each inspiration and expiration, 
respectively. The vital capacity of the lungs is the quantity 
of air breathed out by the deepest expiration following the 
deepest inspiration. It is usually about four quarts for 
adults. There are various instruments in the gymnasium 
for measuring this amount. 



H4 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



HYGIENE OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 

Healthy Lungs. — The lungs, to be healthy, must be used 

to their fullest extent. 
Any part of the lungs 
not used will collapse 
and become in a sense 
solid and of no use. 
Deep breathing every 
day will go a long way 
toward keeping a per- 
son perfectly healthy. 

Exercise, either in 
work, games, or gym- 
nastics, causes deeper 
breathing than usual, 
which means that 
more blood is sent to 
the lungs to be puri- 
fied. 

Round shoulders and 
weak backs may be 
corrected by breathing 
exercises combined 
with arm movements 
upward and downward, 
outward and inward. 
At the United States 
Military Academy at 

West Point there is a "setting up drill" for this express 

purpose. 

Tight corsets interfere with the upward and downward 




THE DEBUTANTE SLOUCH, A POPULAR, BUT UN- 
HYGIENIC WAY OF CARRYING THE BODY. 

{In this position it is impossible to inflate the lungs 
fully. Note the unhygienic shoes.) 



THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 



US 



movements of the ribs and the downward movement of the 
diaphragm, so that the bases of the lungs are compressed and 
used but little. As the pressure is uniform, the wearer 
soon adapts herself to it and imagines she is comfortable. 
Tight corsets not only interfere with respiration, but also 
with the action of the heart. They displace the abdom- 
inal organs, especially the stomach and liver. Girls and 
women who voluntarily tighten the waist show their 
ignorance, foolishness, and lack of the artistic sense of 
proportion. All the great statues of antiquity, which are 
still the highest ideals of beauty, have large waists; for 
example, the Venus de Milo, (p. 48) or the Winged Victory 
of Samothrace. 

Children's clothes should be supported from the shoulders 
and hips, never by the waist. 





Fig. 69 — A hygienic corset waist suitable for growing girls. 



Varieties of Breathing. — Pectoral breathing is seen in 
women who wear tight corsets. None of the movements 
in the lower chest and in the bases of the lungs are used. 

Abdominal breathing is seen in some men who have 



n6 



INDIVIDUAL HYGEINE 



round shoulders and flat chests from tight suspenders. 
Men of this figure do not use the apices of the lungs. 

Diaphragmatic breathing is the normal type in which the 
lungs as a whole are used. 




Fig. 70 — A hygienic corset. 

Shortness of breath may be due to severe exercise, or may 
result from disease of the heart, kidneys, or lungs. A phy- 
sician should always be consulted to ascertain the cause. 

Coughing is a forced expiration in which the larynx is sud- 
denly opened wide, generally to expel mucus from the lungs. 

Sneezing is a sudden expiration in which the air is driven 
mainly through the nose. 

Hiccoughing is a sudden inspiration due to spasm of the 
diaphragm. 

Snoring is caused by long inspirations and expirations 
with the mouth open. Part of the air passes through the 
nose and part through the mouth, causing a vibration of 
the soft palate. 

Artificial Respiration. — In certain conditions, such as 
partial drowning, partial suffocation, snake-bite and light- 



THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 



117 




EFFECT ON" THE CHEST OF DEEP, SHALLOW AND ABDOMIXAL BREATHING. 



ning-stroke, the muscles of respiration cease to act. By 
using some artificial means of inducing breathing, the nerve 
cells controlling the function may be made to start working 
again. 

In such cases lay the patient on his back and place a 
folded coat under the shoulders, thus raising the chest while 
the head falls back. Grasp the arms at the wrists and 
raise them above the head, then gently lower them to 
the sides. While the arms are being lowered an assistant 
presses on the lower part of the ribs, thus helping to drive 
out the air. This action must be repeated from twelve 
to fifteen times a minute and should be kept up for as long 
as five hours, if necessary, as resuscitation has been accom- 



u8 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



plished after the lapse of that length of time. A newer 
and better method of producing artificial respiration is 
the following : — 

Treat at once on getting the patient to land. Lay him 
face downwards but with the head turned to the left side, 
and drain the water from the lungs by lifting the body at 




FIRST STEP TOWARDS RESUSCITATION IN DROWNING ACCIDENT. 



the waist line and jerking it two or three times up and 
down. This process should take about thirty seconds. 
Kneel down between the legs of the patient and place both 
hands over the small of the back, with thumbs nearly 
touching, and fingers spread out over the lower ribs. Swing 
forward, counting three slowly 7 and bring pressure to bear 



THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 



119 



on the ribs to expel the air. Then swing quickly backward, 
releasing the pressure, but keeping the hands in the orig- 
inal position and the arms straight. Count three slowly 
in this position and then repeat the first movement. This 
should be done ten or twelve times a minute, without 
pausing between movements. The English Government 
Life Saving Service and other English Societies are now 
using this method and American Societies have it under 
consideration. 

Sometimes drawing the tongue in and out aids in estab- 
lishing breathing. Another person should be rubbing the 
limbs, while dry blankets and hot-water bottles should be 

obtained as quickly as 
possible. Keep up the 
artificial respiration for 
five hours, if necessary, 
for as was said, persons 
have been resuscitated 
after this time. When 
breathing is established, 
give hot milk or coffee. 

Ventilation consists in 
the continuous replacing 
of the impure air of a 
room with pure fresh air. 
Fresh air is needed when 
the air of a room smells 
" stuffy " to a person com- 
ing into it from the out- 
side. It is the presence 
fig. 72.— a poor ventilation plan. in the air of carbon diox- 






1 




1 ^A. -*— *■ 





Fig. 71. — A good ventilation plan. 




120 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

ide, and not the lack of oxygen, that makes it disagreeable 
for a person to breathe. In a room twenty feet square 
and ten feet high, one person will so contaminate the 
air that it will need to be renewed each hour, and yet the 
room may contain enough oxygen to last a week. 

Natural Ventilation of a Room. — Cool air entering a 
room remains near the floor. As the air is warmed by 
breathing, it tends to rise toward the ceiling. If an open- 
ing be made near the ceiling, and another near the floor, 
the warm air will pass out of the upper opening and the 
cool, fresh air will enter the lower opening. The cracks about 
the windows and doors in a room, will generally furnish 
sufficient ventilation, but if the room contains many per- 
sons other openings must be made. People "catch cold" 
when any part of the body is chilled. In order to avoid a 
draft, the air in a room should not be completely changed 
oftener than three times an hour. 

Modes of Ventilation. — The simplest way of ventilating 
a room is to lower a window from the top. The warm, 
impure air will then pass out at the top, while fresh air will 
enter between the two sashes. A modification of this method 
is to raise the lower sash a few inches and insert a narrow 
board in the opening in such a way as to leave a space be- 
tween the sashes for fresh air to enter. 

Forced Ventilation. — In large buildings such as factories, 
theaters, and schools, warm, fresh air is forced into the rooms 
by rotary fans. This air is often washed or purified before 
being sent through the pipes. The amount of moisture or 
humidity in the air can also be regulated. Cold air contains 
less moisture than warm air, and unless moisture is added 



THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 121 

it is too dry, causing irritability of the nose and throat, 
hoarseness and liability to colds. When moisture is added 
to the air of the school-room, pupils are comfortable at a 
much lower temperature, brains are clearer, and results 
from lessons proportionately better. 

Foul Air. — Expired air contains carbonic acid gas, 
watery vapor, and minute quantities of poisonous animal 
matter. If the air breathed contains more carbonic acid gas 
than is found in the blood, the carbonic acid in the blood is 
not given off, and the person soon becomes poisoned. The 
symptoms are drowsiness, shortness of breath, and uncon- 
sciousness, followed by death. Death, in such cases, is 
caused more by the lack of oxygen in the blood than by the 
actual presence of carbonic acid gas. Fortunately, how- 
ever, discomfort is felt long before the oxygen is dimin- 
ished to such a dangerous extent. 

Crowd Poison. In a close, crowded room, there is soon 
noticeable a characteristic body odor. This odor is very 
disagreeable and oppressive, some persons being more suscep- 
tible to it than others. Its effects are drowsiness, head- 
ache, and nausea, until finally, Nature rebels entirely and 
a faint follows. There are many people who profess to be 
scrupulously clean, who keep their linen spotless and bathe 
frequently, who would not drink after another person nor 
use the same towel, comb, or tooth-brush, who nevertheless 
do not object to breathing the cast-off air from other lungs. 
Air once breathed is as impure, as decayed food and 
muddy water. Do not be afraid of open windows and fresh 
air. A draft only injures those wet with perspiration. 

Xight Air. The old idea that night air is unheal thful 



122 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



is now known to be entirely false. No one can get too much 
night air, if he keeps warm enough. In cities especially, it 
may be said that night air is purer and better than day air, 
because at night there is less traffic on the streets to stir 
up dust and germs. Bedroom windows should be open 
wide all night, the bed being screened in cold weather. 
A direct wind should never strike the sleeper. Fresh air 
is the best preventive of colds and tuberculosis, it is the 
cure for both. 

Carbon Monoxide. This gas is an active poison and is 
due to incomplete combustion of coal. It has a peculiarly, 
disagreeable odor, and may be smelled just after coal is 
added to a furnace or range if there is insufficient draft for 
good combustion. Care should be taken that the lids of 
the kitchen range are not left off at night; also that suf- 




A MODEL CELLAR, SHOWING SEPARATE SECTIONS FOR FOOD STORES, LAUNDRY, 
FURNACE AND FUEL. 



THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 



123 



ficient draft is left on the heater to provide for good 
combustion. 

Cellars. — The cellars and basements of houses are likely 
to be dark, close, and damp. 
Under such conditions, food 
quickly decays or becomes 
covered with mold. Disease 
germs thrive in such an at- 
mosphere and are readily 
carried to the rooms above. 
Therefore all cellars should be 
kept dry, clean, well aired, 
and as light as possible. 

Heating. —Most houses are 
heated by hot air from a stove 
or furnace. The objection to 
this method is the dryness of 
the air which dries out the 
skin and the mucous mem- 
brane of the mouth, nose, 
throat, and eyes. When dry 
heat is used, wide vessels of 
water should be set at the 
inlet — indeed, most heaters 
now have a receptacle for 
water. Hot air registers both 
heat and ventilate a room, if 
care be taken to admit fresh 
air to the pipes in the cellar. 
On a cold day the air inside 




Fig. 73 — Hot 
water heating ap 
paratus for a house. 

A, expansion tank; 

B, radiator; C, fur- 
nace; D water 
chamber. 



124 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

a house is so much warmer than outside that cold air 
rushes in, violently, and only a small opening is necessary. 
In summer, on the contrary, the air inside and outside 
being nearly of the same temperature, large openings are 
required to effect the change of air. 

Heating with steam or hot water provides no means of 
introducing fresh air. The radiators, therefore, should be 
close to the windows so as to heat the air as it enters the 
room, and the outlet for air should be as far from the 
radiators as possible. The same rules apply to stoves. 

Heating by oil and gas stoves is extremely bad, as they 
use up a large quantity of the oxygen in the room in an 
incredibly short time. 

Fireplaces are hygienic, because there is a constant 
escape of air up the chimney, which air must be replaced 
from the outside, entering through every crack and open_ 
ing, thus insuring good ventilation. There is nothing more 
inviting and cozy than an open fire-place full of blazing logs, 
or a cheerful coal fire. 

Diseases of the Respiratory Tract. — Rhinitis: inflamma- 
tion of the nasal passages, or common cold. 

Coryza: a watery discharge flowing from the nose; a 
symptom of rhinitis. 

Pharyngitis: inflammation of the pharynx, or sore throat. 

Tonsilitis: inflammation of the tonsils. 

Laryngitis: inflammation of the larynx — hoarse voice. 

Bronchitis: inflammation of the bronchial tubes. 

Pneumonitis or pneumonia: inflammation of the air-cells 
of the lungs. 

Pleurisy: inflammation of the pleura or membrane cov- 



THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 125 

ering the lungs; a very painful disease and one in which 
breathing is difficult. 

Influenza or La Grippe: inflammation of the upper res- 
piratory passages, attended with still graver constitutional 
disturbances. 

Pulmonary tuberculosis: a growth due to the tubercle 
germs in the lung tissue. This germ forms little lumps 
of solid material, called tubercles, which finally join together 
till the whole lung becomes solidified and the patient dies 
from lack of oxygen. Tuberculosis is called the "great 
white plague"; it kills more people annually than almost 
all other diseases put together. 

Catarrh: inflammation of any mucous membrane, but 
the term especially refers to the respiratory tract — in- 
flammation, however, being a much better term. 

Adenoids: spongy growths in the back of the nose. 
(See Hygiene of Digestive System, p. 67). 

Diphtheria: a disease of the throat caused by a "germ. 
A grayish-white membrane grows over the throat and ton- 
sils, sometimes extending down into the larynx, in which 
case the patient chokes to death. 

Colds. — A cold is inflammation of a mucous mem- 
brane. 

Colds attack the body, only when the resisting power is 
low, — a condition brought about by loss of sleep, great 
fatigue, breathing bad air at a place of entertainment, etc. 
Hence the crop of colds that follows the gayeties of holiday 
weeks. Colds are caused by : — 

1. Overheating of the body, followed by sudden cooling, 
especially in unexpected changes in the weather, and in 



126 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



certain occupations involving alternate high temperature 
and sudden exposure to a lower. 

2. Breathing air charged with irritating dust or vapor. 

3. A cold, damp climate, or weather involving a series 
of damp, cold days. 

After overheating and exposure to cold there is a sudden 
contraction of the skin, which squeezes the blood away from 

the skin back to the internal 
organs, causing the latter to be- 
come congested. Especially is 
this true of all the mucous mem- 
branes. At first there is a hot, 
dry, full feeling in the head, and 
the nose is stopped up — a con- 
dition due to the swelling of the 
mucous membrane, followed in 
a day or two by a profuse mu- 
cous discharge. This mucus 
kills the germs, if there are not 
too many. A cold usually runs 
its course in seven days. Re- 
peated colds cause chronic in- 
flammation. 




Fig. 74 . — The principle of the 
Vacuum Sweeper. The revolving 
fan A forces the air downwards, caus- 
ing a vacuum at B. The dust enter- 
ing at D is caught in the bag C. 



Treatment in the Early Stages. 

— Increase the circulation by 
means of vigorous exercise, such 
as a brisk walk or some gymnasium work, followed by a 
vigorous rub with a coarse towel. In the later stages: 

1. Take a hot mustard foot-bath. 

2. Take hot drinks such as milk, soup or lemonade. 



THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 127 

3. Take a purgative, or medicine to move the bowels. 
The best purgatives are castor oil, cascara, magnesia, and 
phosphate of soda. 

4. Go to bed at once and keep warm, staying there the 
next day, at least. 

After the cold becomes fixed, however, it must run its 
course. In order to get well as quickly as possible, one 
should eat very moderately of food easy to digest; avoid 
hard work; especially avoid patent remedies for colds ad- 
vertised in the newspapers, as many of them contain large 
amounts of opium or cocaine; finally avoid taking your 
friends' remedies! The handkerchiefs used during a cold 
should be kept in a separate bag and then washed and 
boiled separately to prevent distributing the germs, thus 
infecting the rest of the family. 

Prevention of Colds. — 1. Encourage a free, vigorous 
circulation. The latter is deranged by overheating, as 
well as by chilling. A cool sponge bath every morning, or 
sponging the face, neck, chest, and arms with cold water 
will accustom the skin to cold. 

2. Breathe pure air. See that all bed-rooms are well 
ventilated, with no strong draft blowing directly across the 
bed. See that the heated air in the home is not too dry, for 
dry air is irritating to the mucous membrane. 

3. Avoid sudden cooling of the body after overheating, 
especially in dancing, walking, etc. 

4. Wear the proper kind of underclothes. Cotton 
underclothes are not so warm as wool, but dry quickly. 
Woolen underclothes are warmer, but dry slowly. Knit- 
ted cotton underclothes are best for school girls and boys. 



128 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



Woolen ones may be worn by delicate little children and 
old people. 

5. Always breathe through the nose.. The blood vessels 
in the nose heat the air; the hairs strain out dust and germs; 
breathing is necessarily slower and the lungs are expanded 
a longer time. In mouth-breathers the mucous membrane 
becomes dry, bringing on chronic inflammation, hoarseness, 
and indigestion. 

Dust. — The weakening effect of ordinary dust is one of 
the chief causes of lung diseases. In towns and cities the 




WRONG METHOD OF STREET CLEANING. 

(Proper street cleaning requires strong, able-bodied men, and something belter 
than the antiquated broom.) 

dust comes from the street. It consists of dirt swept from 
houses and stores, ashes, soot, dried horse manure, dried 
sputum coughed up by tubercular patients, and the germs 
of all kinds of disease. Constant breathing of dust causes 
colds and chronic inflammation of the respiratory passages 
— a condition common among coal-miners, marble-cutters, 



THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 



129 



workers in cotton waste, plasterers, glass cutters, carpet- 
cleaners, street-sweepers, workers in factories and cement 
works. Such a condition prepares the way for tuberculosis 
by gradually weakening the vitality of the lungs. 

Rooms are best cleaned by the vacuum cleaner because, 
with this machine, the dust is sucked into a tube an$ car- 




HYGIEXIC METHOD OF SWEEPING A ROOM. 



ried out of the house. Next to this method is the carpet- 
sweeper and, last of all, the broom. Carpets and lace 
curtains, pictures, and bric-a-brac are great dust collectors. 
Bare floors with movable rugs should take the place of 
carpets, and curtains should be frequently washed. A 
household incinerator is an admirable means of destroying 
waste, the accumulation of which is thus prevented. 



130 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



Windows should be wide open during sweeping which,* 
if possible, should be done on a windy day. The windows 
should be left open at least a half hour after sweeping, so 
that the dust may be blown out. 

Dusting should always be done with a damp cloth, never 
with a feather duster, for the latter simply stirs up the 
dust and allows it to settle in another place. Dust should 




IMPROVED MODERN METHOD OF STREET CLEANING. 

{Note that the one machine sprinkles, sweeps and gathers up refuse.) 

be collected in the cloth which, when full, can be vigorously 
shaken out of doors. Dusters should be washed after using. 
Spitting should be forbidden everywhere, either indoors or 
on the street, for the sputum contains many germs which 
may be breathed in again as "live" dust. All streets before 
being swept should be sprinkled with water to prevent the 
dust from rising. 



THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 



13 



Consumption 

Is chiefly caused by the Filthy Habit of 

SPITTING 

TAKE .THIS CARD HOME 

And show it to your family, friends, and 
neighbors. 

Consumption is a disease of the lungs, which is taken from 
others, and is not simply caused by colds, although a cold may 
make it easier to take the disease. 

The matter coughed up and sneezed out by consumptives is 
full of living germs or " tubercle bacilli " too small to be seen. 
These germs are the cause of consumption, and when they are 
breathed into the lungs they set up the disease. 

DONT GET CONSUMPTION YOURSELF 

Keep as well as possible, for the healthier your body, the 
harder for the germs of consumption to gain a foothold. Every 
person should observe the following rules: 

DON'T live, study, or sleep in rooms where there is no fresh 
air. Fresh air and sunlight kill the consumption germs and 
other germs causing other diseases; therefore, have as much 
of both in your room as possible. 

DON'T live in dusty air; keep rooms clean; get rid of dust 
by cleaning with damp cloths and mops. DON'T sweep 
with a dry broom. 

KEEP one window partly open in your bedroom at night, 
and air the room two or three times a day. 

DON'T eat with soiled hands. Wash them first. 

DON'T put hands or pencils into the mouth, or any candy 
or chewing gum other persons have used. 

DON'T keep soiled handkerchiefs in your pockets. 

TAKE a warm bath at least once a week. 

DON'T neglect a cold or a cough, but go to a doctor or 
dispensary. 



TYPE OF CARD DISTRIBUTED BROADCAST IN NEW YORK CITY DURING A CAMPAIGN 
AGAINST TUBERCULOSIS BY THE BOARD OF HEALTH. 



132 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



HOW TO GET WELL IF YOU HAVE 
CONSUMPTION 

If you or anyone of your family have consumption, you must 
obey the following rules if you wish to get well: 

DON'T waste your money on patent medicines or adver- 
tised cures for consumption, but go to a doctor or dispensary 
(see last page). If you go in time, you can be cured; if you 
wait, it may be too late. 

DON'T drink whiskey or other forms of liquor. 

DON'T sleep in the same bed with anyone else, and, if 
possible, not in the same room. 

Good food, fresh air, and rest are the best 
cures. Keep out in the fresh air and sun- 
light as much as possible, 

KEEP your windows open winter and summer, day and 
night. 

IF properly wrapped up you will not catch cold. 

GO to a sanatorium while you can and before it is too late. 

The careful and clean consumptive is not 
dangerous to those with whom he lives and 
works, 

DONT GIVE CONSUMPTION TO OTHERS. 

Many grown people and children have consumption with- 
out knowing it, and can give it to others. Therefore, every 
person, even if healthy, should observe the following rules: 

DON'T SPIT on the sidewalks, playgrounds, or on the 
floors or hallways of your home or school. It spreads 
disease, and is dangerous, indecent, and unlawful. 

WHEN YOU MUST SPIT, spit in the gutters or into a 
spittoon half-filled with water. 

DON'T COUGH OR SNEEZE without holding a hand- 
kerchief or your hand over your mouth or nose. 



REVERSE SIDE OF CARD ON PAGE 131. 



VIII.— THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 



The Nervous System. 

— The nervous system 
includes the brain and 
spinal cord, the nerves, 
extending from the brain 
and cord to all parts of 
the body, and the sym- 
pathetic nerves, which 
supply chiefly the organs 
in the body cavity and 
the involuntary muscles. 

The Brain. — The 

brain fills the skull. It 
consists of three parts: 
the cerebrum, which is 
the largest part, the cere- 
bellum, and the medulla 
oblongata. It is covered 
with three membranes. 
The outer, or dura, is 
tough and strong; the 
other two, the arach- 
noid and pia mater, are 
delicate, the latter car- 




Fig. 75 - The Cerebro-Spinal Nervous System 
1 33 



134 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



rying blood vessels to nourish the brain. The surface of the 

brain is folded 
into ridges and 
hollows, called 
convolutions 
and fissures. 
In a cross-sec- 
tion, the outer 
layer appears 
gray and thin; 
the inner mass, 
white. The 
whole is of a 
jelly-like con- 
sistency. The microscope reveals the composition of the 
brain as nerve cells and nerve fibers. 

The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres, each half 
being subdivided again and again. The cerebellum lies 
under the back part of the cerebrum. It is smaller and 
ridged with deep, regular fissures. It is connected by 
nerve bands with the cerebrum and medulla. The medulla 
is a stem or bulb joining the spinal cord with the brain. 




Cross Section of head showing coverings of Brain. 



Nerves are long, white cords of 
nerve matter, which run from the 
base of the brain, and from the me- 
dulla and spinal cord, to all parts. 
Motor nerves carry movement orders 
from the brain and cord to all parts 
of the body. Sensory nerves carry 
messages or stimuli from the parts to 




Fig. 77- — Nerve Cells of the 
Gray Matter of the Brain. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 



135 



the brain. Twelve pairs of cranial nerves lead out from 
the base of the brain; thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves 
lead out from the spinal cord. The largest nerve in the 
arm is the median; the largest nerve in the leg is the sciatic. 




Optica 
(Sight) 



Eye Motor, -^ 
3. 4. 6 



Hypoglossal, 
12 (Tongue 
Motor) 



"5, Trigemina 
(Face 
Sensation) 



""7, Facial 
(Face 
Motion) 



9, Glosso- 
pharyngeal 



11, Spinal 
Accessory 



Fig. 78. — The Base of the Brain, showing the Origin of the Cranial Nerves. 

The special sense organs as well as other parts of the 
body are supplied by the cranial nerves. The first pair 
of these nerves, the olfactory nerves, supply the nose; the 
second, or optic nerves the eyes. The third, fourth, and 
sixth pairs, called the eye motor nerves, are also concerned 
with the eyes and control the muscles of the eyeballs. 



136 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



The fifth pair supply sensation or feeling in the face 
muscles; the fifth pair also send out branches to the 
teeth, and are the nerves affected in facial neuralgia. 
This fifth pair of nerves has also a branch running to the 
fore part of the tongue and giving the sense of taste; 
hence it is called the gustatory nerve. The seventh pair 
control the muscles and hence the expression of the face. 
The eighth pair, or auditory nerves, supply the ear; the 
ninth (the glos so -pharyngeal) and the twelfth {hypo- 
glossal) supply the muscles of the tongue. The tenth 
pair, passing downward from the brain cavity and giving 
off branches to the pharynx and larynx, are distributed 
to the heart, lungs and stomach and are hence called 
pneumo gastric. The eleventh pair are accessory spinal 
nerves and supply certain muscles of the neck, back and 
shoulders. Nerves of touch are found all over the body. 

The Spinal Cord is part of the brain substance. It leaves 
the skull through an opening at the back and extends down 




HOT STOVE 



USCLL 



SPINAL CORD 
Fig. 79. — Diagram illustrating Reflex Action of an External Organ. 



the spinal canal inside the backbone or vertebras. The 
spinal cord is one inch in diameter and it gives off 
nerves laterally to the trunk, arms, and legs. It is 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 



137 



surrounded by the same kind of membrane as the brain. 
On cross-section, the outside is white, the inside gray, the 
gray matter appearing in the form of the letter H. Motor 
nerves connect with the front horns of the H and sensory 
nerves with the horns in the back. 



Writing 



Speech 



The Sympathetic System connects the internal organs 
with the central nervous system and supplies glands and 
involuntary mus- 
cles. There are 
two main lines of 
nerves down each 
side of the spinal Vjjjj^ 
cord, and a net- 
work surrounds 
every organ and 
gland. 

The sympathetic 
system is not under 
the control of the 
will. Blushing is 
an example of re- 
flex action on the 
nerves controlling 
small capillaries of 
the face. 

Functions of 
Brain and Cord. 

The fPrphnim ^ IG ' 8a— Connection of Brain Centers by Association 

Fibres. (After Landois and Stirling.) The dotted lines 

IS the Seat Of irom the hand, mouth, and eye represent sensory fibers 

from the skin, muscles, and joints of the hand, lips, 

consciousness, or bi t etc. 




138 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

thought, will, intellect, and the control of voluntary ac- 
tion. 

The cerebellum coordinates the muscular movements, 
making them work in harmony. Perfect muscular coordi- 
nation is required in walking, talking, standing, swimming, 
etc. A drunken man staggers because the cerebellum is 
affected by alcohol thus causing a lack of coordination. 

The medulla controls the vital functions. The centres 
which control the beating of the heart, respiration, circula- 
tion, swallowing, vomiting, etc., are all located here. The 
cord transmits messages to and from the brain and controls 
reflex action, that is, action that takes place without the 
control of the will. {Fig. 7p, p. ij6.) 

The sympathetic system attends to the working of all 
the internal organs; it presides over such involuntary proc- 
esses as digestion, peristalsis or movement in the intestines, 
the regulation of the heart-beats, the secretion of sweat, and 
the contraction of the eyes in a strong light. 

HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 

•A clear brain and sound nerves require plenty of good, 
pure blood. Nearly one-fifth of the blood in the body goes 
to the brain. Pure blood depends upon fresh air, good food 
and sleep. Plenty of sleep is necessary to renew depleted 
nerve cells. After being used, the cells become thin and 
full of poisonous fatigue products which must be carried 
away by the blood and expelled from the body 

Habit. — By doing the same thing again and again , the 
same nerve cells are called into action, until at length they 
act entirely independent of the will. This independent 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 



139 



action of the nerve cells is called a habit. Habits may be 
good or bad. The habits of the child determine the 
character of the man or woman. 

Cultivate a pleasant expression, politeness in speech and 
manners, the habit of concentration on the matter in hand 
— an invaluable habit to all students — the habit of eating 
slowly and chewing the food thoroughly. Cultivate good 
thoughts; evil thoughts leave an indelible impress on 
the face. 





EFFECT OF HABIT ON THE FACE AS FAR AS EXPRESSION IS CONCERNED. 



Read good books. Form the habit of retiring early and 
rising immediately on being called. The habits formed in 
the growing period are the strongest, and will largely 
determine the character of the boy and girl in after life. 

The brain requires exercise to make it grow, just as 
a muscle needs exercise. Thinking brings more blood 
to the brain and thus more nourishment to the cells, 
making them grow faster. Studying or thinking exercises 
the brain. 



140 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

The brain grows fast in youth; later it develops very 
slowly. It is therefore of the greatest importance that the 
period of youth be devoted to education. Young people 
who leave school early and try to study again in later years 
find the task much more difficult; they seem to have lost 
the ability to study. 

The cause of many nervous breakdowns is excessive or 
too long sustained use of the nervous system. In many 
cases, however, it is not because the brain and cord have 
been overworked, but because the muscular system has 
been weakened by neglecting to take sufficient exercise, 
and, as a consequence, has failed to minister to the rest of 
the body. Worry injures the nervous system even more 
than overwork or lack of exercise. 

Fatigue may be muscular, mental or emotional, and 
is due to toxins or poisons in the blood. These toxins 
are one of the results of cell activity of any kind in the 
body. The toxins formed by the activity of brain and 
nerve cells are much more poisonous than those formed by 
muscle cells; therefore the brain worker becomes tired 
sooner that the day-laborer. Most of these poisons are 
burnt up while we sleep, while others are removed by the 
excretory organs. Whenever the body is rid of the toxins 
we feel refreshed. 

Hard work causes an accumulation in the tissues of 
carbonic acid gas, which is Nature's narcotic. The drowsy 
and dull feeling is a sign that enough work has been done 
and that the person should rest. Such drowsiness is pleas- 
ant. An entirely different kind of fatigue occurs in the 
person who does not work. Through lack of exercise the 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 141 

poisons in the tissues of such a person are not burned up 
or oxidized, and he thus poisons himself. Such a condition 
is accompanied by extreme irritability. 

Rest may be secured in two ways: by sleep, and by 
change of occupation. During waking hours, destructive 
changes occur in the body; during sleep, constructive 
changes take place. 

Amount of Sleep Necessary. — Babies require from 
sixteen to eighteen hours of sleep; very young babies, 
twenty; school children, nine to ten; and adults, seven to 
nine. Some persons require less sleep than others; for 
instance, it is reported that Thomas Edison requires but 
three or four hours. This, however, if true, is an exception 
to the rule, and may be explained by the fact that some 
persons recuperate more quickly than others. 

As one grows older, much less sleep suffices. Invalids 
really sleep more than they imagine. A person might 
"hear the clock strike every hour" — and yet sleep between 
strikes all the time! 

Conditions Favorable to Sleep. — One hour's sleep under 
favorable conditions may be worth a whole night's sleep 
otherwise. 

1 . To sleep well one must be muscularly tired. Healthy 
fatigue comes from hard work; there is an accumulation of 
waste products in the blood and the resulting drowsiness 
is pleasant. Fatigue without work comes to idle people. 
In such cases there is a lack of exercise, oxidization of the 
blood is incomplete, and fatigue results from the waste prod- 
ucts in the blood. 

2. There must be no constipation or indigestion. Diges- 



142 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



tion should go on quietly during sleep. One should never 
go to bed hungry; a cup of hot milk and a biscuit, or an 
apple, will relieve hunger and promote 
sleep. 

3. There should be good ventilation 
in all sleeping rooms. The 
room should be quiet and dark. 
Darkness rests the eye, quiet- 
ness rests the ear, and sound, 
restful sleep is the result. A 
low pillow should be used, and 
the covers should be light but warm. 
The sheets should never be cold or 
damp. The feet should be warm and 
the head cool. Feather-beds are bad; 
they are hot and moist, and 
lacking in ventilation. Before 
closing the eyes one should look 
quietly toward the ceiling, relax 
all the face muscles to prevent 
wrinkles; then relax all the 
muscles in the body; breathe 
deeply and evenly. Sleep on 
the back or inclined a little to- 
ward one side. Keep still, and 
sleep will come quickly. 

4. There should be no excite- 
ment just before retiring. All 
study should be stopped for at 
least a half hour, and some pleasant recreation indulged 
in; such as music, a quiet game, or a short walk. 




SOME NOISES WHICH TEND TO INCREASE 
NERVOUSNESS. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 



143 



During sleep the breathing is slower and fainter; 
heart beats more slowly; 
less heat is produced; diges- 
tion is slower and less blood 
is sent to the brain. The 
vitality of the body is low 
and the condition simulates 
death. 



the 



Dreams. — Dreams are 
usually records of previous 
experiences. The ideas 
are confused, as the will 
and judgment are not 
present to adjust and ar- 
range them properly. Good 
dreams are restful; bad 
dreams are disturbing. 

Rising. — Always get up on 
waking or being called, or 
the instinct to awake when 
you have had enough 
sleep will be lost. Some 
people sleep too much and 
become drowsy or sluggish 
in their minds. Do not use 
an alarm clock, as the noise 
is a great nervous shock 
which may be injurious. 




HOW CITY NOISES DISTURB REST. 



Drugs which Induce Sleep. — Some drugs, called som- 
nifacients, are used to induce sleep. This condition 



144 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

however, is not real sleep; it is unconsciousness. The body 
is neither built up nor refreshed. Opium, chloral, and the 
bromides deaden pain and produce sleep, but they do so 
at the expense of the nervous system, the nerves of which 
they deaden. Such drugs should never be taken except 
by direction of a physician. 

Abnormal sleepiness is a symptom of such diseases as 
anaemia, liver and kidney disease, constipation and indi- 
gestion. A physician should always be consulted. 

To prevent sleep, do not sit too near a hot stove; do not 
wear too warm clothing in the house; do not sit in a badly 
ventilated room; do not sit in a rocking-chair; do not lean 
over a table to study; do not eat rich, heavy food. Ner- 
vousness and worry always hinder sleep. Nervous people 
usually have sluggish minds and irritable tempers; they 
are likely to have either hilarious spirits or "the blues." 
They cannot keep still and their condition shows itself in 
nervous twitchings, fidgeting, or more violent movements, 
called chorea or St. Vitus' Dance. City children are often 
nervous and self-conscious because they hear too much noise, 
get too little sleep, eat too many sweet things, meet too 
many people and have no chance to be alone and rest. 

Nervousness. — Too many school children are nervous 
or have weakened control of the nerves. In cities the 
causes producing weakened nerves in children are legion; 
chief among them being the constant street noises, loss of 
sleep, too frequent attendance at places of amusement, 
improper food including a too free indulgence in candy, 
ice-cream, cake, and soda-water, and a lack of pure, fresh 
air. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 



145 



All schools should provide good ventilation, as breath- 
ing bad air does more harm to the young students than 
overstudy. The home preparation of school work should 
not exceed more than two or three hours. Play and games 




TIRED CHILDREN RETURNING FROM A POPULAR OUTING. 

(Note that every condition seems to be present for indigestion and sleeplessness.) 

should be encouraged outside of school in the afternoons. 
Between lessons, breathing and stretching exercises should 
be provided. 

Rules for the Nervous Person. — Forget yourself and 
think of other people. Do not hurry. Be calm and quiet. 
Stop all work at intervals and think. Take deep breaths, 



146 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



as it relaxes tension. Do not worry. Keep control of 
yourself and your actions. Be bright, cheerful, and happy, 
even if you feel quite the opposite. Smile and look cheerful, 
and you will become cheerful. 

During the lunch hour in school, stop thinking of work 
and lessons. Change your occupation. If you have been 
sitting, walk; if you have been on your feet, rest. Laugh 




RESTING THE MUSCLES BY COMPLETE RELAXATION. 

and talk and tell your best stories, thus improving the 
digestion and the nervous system at the same time. All 
school boys and girls should have a hobby and ride it hard. 
This gives rest and relaxation to the strained nerves. Limit 
your attendance at parties and other dissipations to the end 
of the week. If possible spend Saturday and Sunday in 
the country. Try to be entirely alone for at least an hour 
every day. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 147 

When the body is tired, lie down for a half hour or an 
hour in the afternoon; loosen the clothing, relax and sleep. 
Nature will be grateful and will show her gratitude in 
supplying new energy to accomplish new tasks. 

Relaxation. — The ability to relax is one of the most 
valuable gifts of Nature. The entire body should be relaxed 
in order to sleep and rest properly. Therefore the person 
who relaxes most quickly, goes to sleep most readily. The 
ability to relax seems to come naturally to some people, 
though it may be acquired by everybody. The habit of 
momentary relaxation in the midst of hard work is of great 
value to the individual. 

How to practise relaxation. On going to bed let the 
body go, absolutely; do not try to hold up the bed. Lift 
first one arm over the head, then the other; then drop 
them both as if they were dead. Do the same with the legs 
alternately, then with the head and neck. Contract the 
muscles in order to realize how hard they feel; then let 
them go loosely, without changing the position of the limb. 
By practice complete relaxation may be acquired in a few 
seconds, and rest and sleep will surely follow. 

THE SENSES 

General Sensation. — Sensation is either general or 
special. General sensations indicate the condition of the 
interior of the body. They are conveyed usually by many 
sympathetic nerves all over the body. These sensations, 
however, are not always exact. Examples of general sensa- 
tions are hunger and thirst, pain, nausea, itching, restless- 
ness, giddiness, and faintness. We are often only partly 



148 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

conscious of these sensations and are unable to locate them 
exactly. 

General sensations are an invaluable guide to health. 
They are warning signals which should always be obeyed. 
Fatigue of body or mind means that the work causing it 
should stop. Thirst should be quenched with cool water; 
hunger should be appeased with food and, when hunger is 
satisfied, eating should cease. Pain should always be 
investigated, and not merely deadened with opiates and 
narcotics, which relieve the pain but leave the original 
cause of the pain untouched. When sleepy one should go 
to bed and, on waking in the morning, get up promptly. 

Headache. — This is the most common and the most use- 
ful pain, as it is a danger signal indicating trouble somewhere 
in the body. Whatever the remote cause may be, certain 
poisons called toxins are produced, which circulate in the 
blood through all parts of the body . On reaching the delicate 
nerves of the head, face and scalp, they cause pain. Though 
the toxins influence all parts of the body, they produce their 
greatest effect where the nerves are the most sensitive. 

There are two kinds of headache, the congestive and the 
ancemic. The congestive headache produces a flushed face, 
reddened eyes and a bursting feeling in the head. The 
anaemic headache is accompanied by a cool, moist skin, 
extreme pallor, nausea and vomiting. 

Remote Causes of Headache. — Headache may result 
from any one of the following causes: Indigestion, especi- 
ally from tainted food, such as too old meat, stale shell- 
fish or sour ice-cream; badly ventilated rooms; too much 
sun; broken sleep; bad news; worry; overwork; a cold; eye 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 149 

strain; constipation; lack of exercise; the beginning of 
infectious fevers, etc. All headaches are accompanied by 
fatigue, which may be either muscular, mental or emotional. 

Muscular fatigue may result from house-cleaning or a 
hard game of basket-ball; mental fatigue from over-study 
or continuous reading; emotional fatigue from excitement 
on Commencement Day, or from indulgence in anger, grief 
or homesickness. 

Fatigue products from the nerve cells called into play 
by brainwork are more poisonous than those from the 
muscle cells; therefore mental work is more tiring than 
manual labor. 

Ptomaine poisoning is the result of eating tainted food. 
The headache is severe and is due to the poisons liberated 
by the putrefaction of food in the stomach. 

Sick headache has nothing to do with the stomach. The 
vomiting is merely sympathetic due to the extreme pain in 
the head. Vomiting in sea-sickness is also sympathetic, 
being due to dizziness and disturbance of the semi-circular 
canals in the inner ear. 

Bad ventilation causes headache. The carbonic acid 
gas cast off by the body, is breathed in again and the body 
becomes poisoned by it. 

Constipation prevents the proper evacuation of the 
bowels so that waste products in the intestine are re- 
absorbed into the blood and the body is poisoned. 

Loss of sleep prevents the burning up of the fatigue prod- 
ucts made during the day, which products remain in the 
tissues and poison the body. If these poisons accumulate, 
they will cause wakefulness or insomnia. 

Nasal obstruction due to adenoids and chronic inflam- 



150 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



mation of the nose and throat interferes with breathing 
and therefore with the purification of the blood. 

Treatment of Headache. — The remote cause should be 
found and treated. Temporary relief will be found in 
rest and gentle massage. Rest means lying down in a 
darkened room, with the eyes shut, the body absolutely 
quiet and all the muscles relaxed. 




REST ROOM FOR EMPLOYEES IN A MODERN FACTORY. 

(A case of bad headache.) 

For the congestive headache, apply cold water to the head; 
for the anaemic headache use hot water. This will tend to 
equalize the blood supply. The application of massage, 
or gentle friction, to the head, by soothing the nerve 
endings in the scalp, will also help to relieve the head- 
ache. 

Great care should be exercised in taking remedies for 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 



151 



headache. Patent headache medicines are harmful, as 
they contain acetanilid, a drug which injures the heart 
permanently. Remedies which relieve pain, without 
removing the real cause, make the condition worse. The 
nerves are only deadened and the poisons remain in the 
blood just the same. The sensibilities of the patient are 
blunted — the judgment, will, and keenness of perception 
are dulled. When it is necessary, the doctor will always 
give a mild nerve sedative which will not injure the patient. 

Special Sensation. — The special senses tell us what is 
going on in the outside world. Each special sense has a 
special organ on the surface of the body. The spinal and 
cranial nerves also act as special sense nerves. 

The special senses are touch (including sense of pain, 
temperature, pressure, and the mus- 
cular or kinesthetic sense), taste, smell, 
hearing, and sight. 

Touch or the Tactile Sense. — The 

nerves of touch are in the skin and 
end in touch corpuscles in the der- 
mis. The delicacy of touch varies in 
different parts of the body, being 
greatest on the tip of the tongue, the 
lips, and the ends of the fingers. 

The temperature sense is the abil- 
ity to recognize heat and cold. The 
thermic nerves, as they are called, are easily tired; for 
instance, in putting the hands in a basin of hot water, the 
sensation of heat is soon dispelled, while in cold countries 
the nose may be frozen without one's being conscious of it. 




Fig. 81.— A Touch Corpuscle. 



152 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



The pressure nerves are around the roots of the hairs. 
A hair cannot be disturbed without one's being conscious 

of pressure, however slight. 
Pressure is felt first on the 
forehead and temples. 

The sense of pain has special 
nerves distributed all over the 
body. Pain is always a dan- 
ger signal to let us know 
that something is out of order. 
These nerves may be dead- 
ened internally by narcotics, 
or locally by freezing, or by 
applications of certain anaes- 
thetic drugs such as cocaine, 
etc. 

The muscular sense gives 
one the sense of weight in a 
given object. While holding an object, an increase of one- 
seventeenth of its weight can be felt. 




Fig. 82. — Pacinian Corpuscle, magnified. 
A. Medullated nerve fiber; B. Axis cyl- 
inder terminating in small bulb at C. D. 
Concentric layers of tissue. E. Inner bulb. 



Papillas 




Glosso-pharyngeal 
Nerve (9th) 



. Gustatory Branch of Fifth Nerve. 
Fig. 83. — Nerves and Papillas of the Tongue. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 



153 



Taste. — The organs of taste are located in the papillas 
of the tongue, the soft palate, and the throat. The nerves 
of taste are the glosso-pharyngeal and hypoglossal. The 
papillas make the tongue look rough. Those appearing on 
the tip and top of the tongue, as white or red dots, are the 
fungiform papillas. By means of the papillas at the tip 
we taste sweet things and by means of those on the sides 





Fig. 84. — Sense Organs of Taste. A, map of upper surface of tongue, showing on the 
left the different kinds of papillas, and on the right the areas of taste (after Hall). Area 
sensitive to bitter ( ) ; to acid ( ) ; to salt ( — . — . — . — ) ; to sweet ( ). 

B, section through a papilla; n, small nerve connecting witn taste buds at d ; e, epithelium. 

C, single taste bud magnified: n, nerve, the fibers of which terminate between the spindle- 
shaped cells a; e, epithelial cells. 

of the tongue, sour and salty things. Far back on the 
tongue are about a dozen large, circum vallate papillas, 
which enable us to taste bitter things. 

Any substance to be thoroughly tasted must be in liquid 
form or dissolved in a liquid. Food should therefore be 
thoroughly chewed and mixed with saliva, in order to be 
thoroughly tasted and enjoyed. 

Smell. — The sense organs of smell are located in the 
mucous membrane which lines the upper cavity of the nose. 



154 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



In ordinary breathing, air does not reach this part of the 
nose, so when we wish to smell things better we naturally 
sniff the air. The nerves of smell are the olfactory nerves 
Matter must be in the form of a gas in order to be thor- 
oughly smelled. The sense of smell is very delicate and 
keen and is more effective in recalling to the mind early 
associations than any other sense. 

Taste and smell are closely related. This fact is proved 



Olfactory Bulb 



Olfactory Nerves 

Branches of 
Fifth Nerve 

Turbinated Bones 




FlG. 85.— Nerves of the Outer Wall of the 
Nasal Cavity. 



by the loss of taste when one is suffering from a cold. 
Such articles as coffee, onions, peppermint, etc., are more 
smelled than tasted. Often very repulsive medicine may 
easily be swallowed by holding the nose and thus avoiding 
the smell. During a cold in the head the mucous lining 
of the nose is thickened, there is an increase of mucus, 
and both the senses of smell and taste are obscured. 

With chronic inflammation, or adenoids, there is a lack 
of perception of flavors and odors; consequently, food tastes 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 



155 



insipid, unless much salt, vinegar, mustard, horseradish or 
other strong condiments are added. Besides injuring the 
stomach, these powerful condiments blunt the sense of 
taste to the milder flavors, such as that of butter unsalted, 
which tastes more of fine cream than when salted. 

Food to be digested properly must be palatable and en- 
joyable. People who eat slowly enjoy the taste more and 
digest their food more easily. The nerves of taste and 
smell are easily tired The first whiff of cologne is always 



Stirrup Anvil 



Semicircular Canal 




COCHLE 



EUSTACHIAN. 



PHARYNX 



Fig. 86. — Structure of the Ear. 



the best; the first taste of sweetbreads always the most 
distinctive. 

Hearing. — The sense organ of hearing is the ear, of 
which there are three sections — the outer, middle and 
inner. The nerve of hearing is the auditory nerve. 

The outer ear consists of the wrinkled cartilage which we 



156 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



see, and the canal passing into the head through the tem- 
poral bone. This canal, called the external auditory canal, 
is closed at its inner end by a delicate membrane called the 
drum membrane. The skin lining the passage is supplied 
with small hairs and wax glands. 

The middle ear or drum lies between the outer and inner 
ear. It is connected with the throat by the Eustachian 
tube, which admits air to the drum. This tube opens every 
time we swallow. Three small bones, called from their 
shape the malleus (or hammer), the incus (or anvil), and 
the stapes (or stirrup), form a chain across the middle ear 
from the drum membrane to an oval opening into the inner 
ear. 

The inner ear, or labyrinth, is composed of three portions, 
the vestibule, the cochlea (snail shell), and three semi- 
circular canals, all 
deep in the temporal 
bone. These cavities 
are filled with a 
watery fluid. The 
auditory nerve is 
spread out in the 
membrane lining the 
cochlea. The semi- 
circular canals are 
concerned in keeping 
the equilibrium of the 
body. 

How Sound is 
Heard. — Sounds are produced by a disturbance in the 
air, which causes sound-waves to vibrate in every direction. 




FlG. 87. — General Form of Internal Ear. The 
illustration represents the structures of the internal 
ear surrounded by a thin layer of bone. 1, vesti- 
bule; 2, cochlea; 3, semicircular canals; 4, fenestra 
ovalis; 5, fenestra rotunda. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 



157 



The waves of air enter the external auditory canal, strike 
against the drum membrane and cause it to vibrate. These 
vibrations put in motion the three small bones in the 
middle ear, which in turn transmit the vibration to the 




Fig. 88. — Diagram illustrating the Spreading 01 Sound Waves 
through the air. 

fluid or lymph in the inner ear. The fluid strikes against 
the membranous lining of the cochlea and touches the 
nerve endings of the auditory nerve, which latter carries 
the impression to the brain. 

Care of the Ears. — i . Never box a child's ears, as the 
delicate drum membrane might be broken and deafness 
result. 

2. When listening to any loud noise such as a salute of 
cannon, always open the mouth in order to allow plenty of 
air in the Eustachian tube to insure equal pressure on both 
sides of the drum membrane. 

3. For insects in the ear, pour in warm oil to kill or 
paralyze the insect. Then gently syringe the ear with 
warm water. Never poke the ear with an instrument of 
any kind. 

4. Let the wax in the ear alone. Remove only that 
which can be reached with a soft towel around the end of the 
finger. 



158 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



Some drugs, such as quinine, cause a buzzing in the ears 
and temporary deafness; they should be avoided by any 
one having an hereditary tendency to deafness. 

Earache is usually due to inflammation of the middle 
ear. In light cases, apply dry heat in the form of a hot- 
water bottle. If the pain is very severe, do not wait too 
long, but go to an ear-specialist, who will puncture the 
membrane and let out the pus which is causing the pain. 
Delay may cause the drum membrane to be ruptured, in 
which case a ragged scar and deafness will result. 

Frequently infectious diseases, such as measles and 
scarlatina, are followed by deafness. Adenoids, which 
grow over the openings of the Eustachian tubes, also cause 
deafness. 

The Sight. — The sense organ of sight is the eye. The 
eyeballs are globes, about one inch in diameter, situated 

Superior obh'aue 




tf* ternal 
rectus 



Superior j 
rectus 



$.€*. ternat 
rectus 



Optic nerve. 



F(G. 89. — Exterior Muscles of Eyeball. 



deep in bony sockets called the orbits. The, eyes rest on 
cushions of fat. They are protected by the eyelids and 
lashes from light and dust; by the brows from perspira- 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 



159 



Lachrymal 



tion; by the tears from friction; and by the forehead and 
cheek bones from injuries. Six small muscles hold the eye 
in place and move them in various directions. Cross-eyes 
or squint is caused by the inner muscles pulling stronger 
than the outer muscles. 

Tears are a salty fluid secreted by the tear glands 
under the upper eyelid, on the outer side of the eye. 
Tears lubricate and cleanse the eye, 
carrying dust and other particles 
of matter into the nose through the 
tear ducts, the openings of which 
may be seen on the inner corner of 
the lower eyelid, as small red spots. 
During a cold, the tear ducts may 
easily be stopped up, causing watery 
eyes. In the eyelids are small glands fig. 9 o. — Diagram of irrigating 
secreting an oily fluid, which pre- ~1^L^ 
vents the tears from overflowing the into the nostrils and moisten 

. . . . the air entering the lungs. 

lids. When this secretion is too 

abundant as during sleep, the lids stick together. 




The Eyeball. — The outer wall of the eyeball has three 
coats. The outer, or sclera, thick and white, is for protec- 
tion; the front of the sclera is transparent and forms 
the cornea. The middle coat, or choroid, consists of black 
or brown pigment (for absorbing superfluous light), and 
many blood vessels. The front of the choroid forms the 
iris, or the ring which gives color to the eye. The choroid 
is pierced by a hole — the pupil. The inner coat or retina 
is very thin; it is of a pinkish color, and on it are spread 
out the end fibers of the optic nerve which is the special 



i6o 



IHDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



nerve of sight, and which enters the back of the eyeball at 
the centre. 

The interior of the eye is divided into two chambers. 
The front or anterior chamber is filled with a watery fluid 

called the aqueous hu- 
mor. Just back of the 
iris and pupil, between 
the front and back 
chambers, is a solid, 
clear little body called 
the crystalline lens 
through which the 
rays of light pass on 
their way to the retina. 
The posterior chamber, 
which is larger than 
the anterior, is filled 
with a clear, jelly-like 
substance called the 
vitreous humor. 

Sight, like sound, is 
produced by the rapid 
vibration of a sub- 
stance called ether. 
Ether is present every- 
where, even where air does not exist. Waves of light 
always travel in straight lines, called rays. If a substance 
permits light to pass through it perfectly, it is said to be 
transparent; if partially only, translucent; if not at all, 
opaque. 
How We See, — Rays of light enter the eye through the 




Fig. 91. — Diagram of the Eyeball in Position. 1, 
yellow spot; 2, blind spot; 3, retina, 4, choroid coat; 
5, sclerotic coat; 6, crystalline lens; 7, suspensory 
ligament; 8, ciliary processes and ciliary muscle; 
9, iris containing the pupil; 10, cornea; n, lymph 
duct; 12, conjunctiva; 13, inferior and superior 
recti muscles; 14, optic nerve; 15, elevator muscle of 
eyelid; 16, bone. A, posterior chamber containing 
the vitreous humor. B, anterior chamber contain- 
ing the aqueous humor. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 



161 



cornea, passing through the aqueous humor and the pupil; 
the iris regulates the quantity of light by contracting or 
dilating as circumstances warrant. The crystalline lens in 
the normal eye causes the lines of light to converge, so 
that after passing through the vitreous humor they fall 




Far-sighted L>\ 



Normal Eye. 
Fig. 92. — Defects in Eyesight. 



Near-sighted Eye. 



upon the retina in just the proper way to form a tiny in- 
verted image of the objects seen. The optic nerves from 
the two eyes cross in such a wonderful way that one of 
these images is super-imposed upon the other, thus caus- 
ing us to see but one object, and that not inverted. The 
choroid or middle coat absorbs all superfluous light. 
Albinos, who, have no pigment in the iris and choroid and 
consequently, are always squinting to keep out the light, 
are able to see clearly only in a half-light. 

In order to focus the light properly on the retina, the 
crystalline lens changes its shape according to whether the 




E 



SNELLEN'S TEST LETTERS. 

(These should be seen distinctly by a correct eye at a distance of twenty feet.) 

object looked at is near or distant. If the lens brings the 
rays of light to a focus before they reach the retina, we 
say the person is near-sighted and requires concave glasses. 



1 62 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



This condition is often present in young people. If the 
rays are not brought to a focus soon enough, we say the 
person is far-sighted, and requires a convex lens. This 



DISTANT 




Fig. 93. 



Diagram showing changes in shape of crystalline lens to adapt 
it to near and distant vision. 



condition is common in old people. Our eyes at rest are 
naturally farsighted. It requires muscular action of the 
lens to see things closely; this action is called accommo- 
dation. 

Astigmatism is a condition due to inequalities of the sur- 





Fic 94. — Test for Astigmatism. If some of the lines appear darker than others 
the eye is astigmatic. 

face of the cornea or lens. Headaches, dizziness, smarting 
and watering of the eyes result from this condition. Proper 
glasses will remedy it. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 



163 



Care of the Eyes. — 1. Eye strain may show itself by 
headaches, nervousness, nausea, and indigestion. 

2. If the eyes need an examination, go to an oculist, 
not to an optician. An oculist is a regular physician who 
has made a special study of the eye and is perfectly com- 
petent to order lenses. An optician is a person who makes 
and sells eye-glasses. Such a person is not capable of 
prescribing glasses. This work should only be done by an 
oculist. 

3. For reading, sewing, or any close work there should 
be a good steady light, neither too bright nor too dim. 
The light should be on the work, not on the eyes; it should 
come from behind, prefer- 
ably over the left shoulder. 
Do not read while travel- 
ling in a train, street-car, 
or automobile, as the con- 
stant trembling and jerking 
is very hard on the eyes. 
Moving pictures are also 
injurious to the eyes for 
the same reason. 

4. Never read lying down, 
as the eyes are then in a 
strained position and be- 
come congested with blood. 
Never read fine print. 

5. Rest the eyes occasionally by closing them, or by 
looking at some distant object. 

6. Avoid dust, as it is irritating and causes redness, 
watering, etc. To remove a cinder under the upper eyelid 




METHOD OF EXTRACTING CINDER OR OTHER 
FOREIGN BODY FROM THE EYE. 



164 



INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 



have the person look down, then gently turn the eyelid up 
over a lead-pencil and remove the speck with the corner 

of a handkerchief. Bathe the 
eye in hot water to relieve 
congestion. 

7. Avoid dotted or thick- 
meshed veils, as they cause 
headache. 

8. Never wipe the face with 
the towel of a public toilet- 
room or with another person's 
handkerchief, as many serious 
eye diseases have thus been 
communicated from one to 
another. In fact the public 
towel should be avoided. 



DOTTED VEILS ARE SPECIALLY 
INJURIOUS TO THE EYES. 

9. For sore eyes, use a solu- 
tion of boracic acid, a half 
teaspoonful to a cup of warm 
water. Wash the eye out 
with the solution, using an 
eye-dropper. Always consult 
a physician in case of any 
inflammation of the eyes. 





CORRECT METHOD OF USING ANY 
EYE-DROPPER. 



IX .— EXPERIMENTS. 

Cells: 

i. Observe frog's eggs — obtained in April — in jelly-like 
masses. 

2. Observe transparent membrane inside the outer layer 
of an onion. Lay a piece in a drop of water on a glass. 
Look through it toward the light with an ordinary magni- 
fying glass. Note the rectangular cells. 

3. Microscope. Scrape a little material from the inside 
of your cheek. Note the flat epithelial cells. 

Foods : 

1. Coagulation. Let milk stand in a glass in a warm 
room for a few days, or pour in some vinegar or a tablet 
of rennet. 

2. Pupils should cook eggs at home so that the white is 
soft and not tough. 

3. Mold. Moisten bread and touch it to the floor. 
Place in a tightly covered dish in a warm room and observe 
the growth of mold. 

4. Take a potato and cut in half. Stand each half in a 
cup containing a teaspoonful of water. Put in a room 
when sweeping. Then cover with a saucer and keep in a 
warm room for a week. Note growth of bacteria. 

5. Fats and Oils. Place a little tallow on unglazed 
paper and warm. Hold paper to light and note that it is 
semi-transparent. Place a little starch, sugar, chalk or 

165 



166 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

white of egg on paper and reheat. Is the effect the same? 
Heat tallow in a spoon and compare effects of heat on 
proteid and fat. 

6. Adulteration of food. Add boracic acid or formalin 
to milk; and note the peculiar taste. Add salicylic acid 
or borax to canned vegetables and note the taste. 

Skin: 

i. Let a pupil put his hand on the desk behind him and 
another pupil touch a hair on that hand with a pencil. 
The first pupil should speak the moment his hand is 
touched. (Evidence of increased sensitiveness). 

2. Perspiration. Hold a piece of cold glass near the 
cheek, or place cheek near a cold window pane. Note 
the moisture. 

3. Moisten your right hand and let it dry. Then touch 
the other hand. Did the right hand feel cold? 

4. Wet your hands. Place them on cotton — linen — 
woolen — silk. Which is most absorbent? Which least? 

5. Test looseness of weave in samples of different weaves 
by noting how far each can be stretched. 

Digestive System: 

1. Examine full set of teeth obtained from a dentist. 
Saw through a tooth and observe structure. 

2. Observe teeth with a mirror. Note four kinds. 
What are they for? Are they clean? Any decayed spots? 
Do the canines project beyond the other teeth as in a dog? 
Do the upper and lower incisors meet when the jaws come 
together? 

3. Look at the teeth of young children at home and note 
whether they are coming in straight or not. 



EXPERIMENTS 167 

4. Examine alimentary canal of a cat, squirrel, or rabbit. 
(Formalin 2 oz. to water 1 qt. for preserving specimens.) 

5. Obtain a piece of stomach or intestine from a butcher. 
Note the coats of the stomach and the villuses of the 
intestine. 

Digestion : 

1. Test for acids. Blue litmus paper turns red. Test 
sour milk, vinegar, and lemon. 

2. Alkalies. Test baking-soda in water. Red litmus 
paper turns blue in alkaline substances. 

3. Starch. Starchy substances turn blue when tested 
with iodine. 

Dilute tincture of iodine and test paper and cardboard. 
Make pastes with cornstarch, wheat flour, and white 
potatoes. Heat each and test with dilute iodine. Try 
rice in which the reaction is very blue. 

4. Test for grape sugar. Place a piece of pear in a test 
tube. Add a little Fehling's Solution and boil. The re- 
sulting red color is caused by the formation of copper oxide. 

5. Proteids. Put some white of egg in a test tube, and 
heat slowly. Pour in a little dilute nitric acid. The pro- 
teid turns yellow. 

Circulation : 

1. Examine a sheep's heart and blood vessels obtained 
from a butcher. (Use formalin solution for preserving.) 

2. Effect of gravity on blood. Hold the right arm above 
the head, and let left arm hang down. Notice color. Re- 
verse hands. 

3. Locate the veins on the back of the hand or arm 
and apply pressure. Note the valves. 



168 INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

4. Indicate hemorrhage from a vein and mark with blue 
chalk; a hemorrhage from an artery marking with red 
chalk. Arrange tourniquet in proper position for each case. 

5. Study a drop of blood under the microscope. 

6. Wind a string rather tightly about the forefinger 
of the left hand, beginning at the base. When the end 
of the finger is reddened and distended with blood, 
make with a sterilized needle, a quick, sharp, light 
puncture near the base of the nail. This ordinarily 
brings a small amount of blood. Remove the string and 
watch the drop of blood. Note that at first it is perfectly 
liquid, but later it becomes jelly-like, i. e., it coagulates. 
Later still observe that a clear or slightly yellowish liquid 
oozes from it. This yellowish liquid is the serum. What 
is left is the clot. After the serum has evaporated, the 
clot dries and forms a scab. 

Respiratory System: 

1. Obtain lungs of sheep from butcher. Slit open the 
bronchi to show the linjng. 

2. Open the larynx and observe the vocal cords. 

3. Test lung capacity by means of a spirometer. 

4. Breathing exercises. Show three types : pectoral, dia- 
phragmatic, and abdominal. 

Respiration : 

1. Study throat with a hand glass — with back to the 
light. Note the teeth, tongue with papillae, roof of mouth, 
whether high or low, broad or narrow, the fauces and 
tonsils and the soft palate. 

2. Breathe on a mirror and note the expired air. Note 
moisture. 



EXPERIMENTS 169 

3. Breathe in a glass of lime water through a tube. Note 
the white cloud due to carbonate of lime. 

4. Breathe on a tbe«-mometer. Note result. 

5. Note quiet breathing. Watch the parts that move 
in deep breathing. Place the hands on front and sides of 
chest, waist, and abdomen. What motions? 

6. Observe and record the rate of breathing in the 
horse, cow, dog, and cat. Is air drawn more quickly in, 
or out of the nose? Is there a pause? If so, when? 

7. Count the respirations for one minute of a person 
sitting quiet. Repeat twice, and take the average of the 
three. 

8. Count the respirations of a person who has been 
actively exercising, as running upstairs or playing tennis, 
baseball, etc. 

9. Count the respirations of one who is lying down, but 
not asleep. Count again when the same person is asleep. 

10. Count the respirations before and just after a meal. 

11. Compare the rate of respiration in different individ- 
uals who are apparently in the same condition as regards 
exercise, mental excitement, eating, etc. • 

12. Note dust in the air through a beam of sunlight. 
Air: 

1. Breathe into cup of lime water a few times through 
a tube. The carbon dioxide in the breath joins with the 
lime to form calcium carbonate — the water turns a milky 
white. 

2. Let dishes of lime water stand an hour in a well- 
ventilated room and also in a poorly ventilated room. 
Note the resulting milkiness. 

3. Demonstrate artificial respiration. 



i 7 o INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 

Alcohol : 

Into each of three tumblers place one inch of soil in 
which several seeds of corn have been planted. Fill the 
first tumbler with beer, the second with a mixture of one 
third beer to two-thirds water, and the third with pure 
water. Cover each with glass, place in a warm, light room 
(not in the sun) and observe germination. 



PART TWO. 



COMMUNITY HYGIENE. 



COMMUNITY HYGIENE 

PART TWO 
I.— DISEASE AND GERMS 

Disease. — In ancient times and during the middle ages 
men thought that disease was a punishment from the gods 
for man's misdeeds; or that evil spirits had taken up their 
abode in the body and must be driven out by spells and 
incantations. 

The fact that each and every disease is produced by a 
germ was not discovered until 1876 by Dr. Louis Pas- 
teur of France. He first proved that anthrax, a disease 
of cattle, was due to a little rod-like plant in the blood, so 
small as to be seen only under a microscope. Since then, 
the germs of the following diseases have been found and 
identified: typhoid fever, diphtheria, pneumonia, lockjaw, 
influenza, erysipelas, cholera, the plague, tuberculosis,- cere- 
brospinal meningitis, and others. The germs of measles, 
whooping-cough, scarlet-fever, smallpox, and mumps have 
not yet been found, but probably will be in the near future. 

Germs, Microbes and Bacteria belong to the vegetable 
kingdom and they are the smallest living things we yet 
know about. They live either upon dead tissue or upon 
the degenerate tissue of living plants and animals. 

173 



174 



COMMUNITY HYGIEXE 



Useful and Pathogenic Bacteria. — About 95% of bac- 
teria are useful. Such bacteria destroy dead tissue, restor- 
ing it to the soil and air again; they are necessary to the 
formation of soil; they help to purify the water in the 
earth; they cause milk to sour; they help to make cheese 










Fig. 95. — Types of germs. From left to right, top row: — Pus, Tuberculosis, Tetanus; 
bottom row: — Pneumonia, Diphtheria, Typhoid. 



and butter, and aid in many other useful and necessary 
organic changes. 

Bacteria multiply either by simply dividing in half, or 
by giving off little round bodies called spores, which grow 
and become adults. Spore cells have a hard, tough wall 
which makes them harder to kill than disease germs. 
Most bacteria grow best between 70 and 95 °. Hence 
foods difficult to preserve, especially milk, meat, and eggs, 
have to be kept in an ice-box, at lower temperatures 



DISEASE AND GERMS 



175 



than these, so that germs will not grow. Direct sun- 
shine or boiling water at 212 will kill germs, but not 
spores. 

About 5% of bacteria, called pathogenic, are detrimental 
to the health of human beings. They are really parasites, 
feeding upon the cells in the human body and excreting 
poisons called toxins, which circulate in the blood and 




DANGER OF CONTAMINATION TO CISTERN AND WELL WATER FROM SURFACE DRAINAGE 
OR FROM ENTRANCE OT FILTH AT TOP. 



have a bad effect on the tissues. The germ diseases are 
called infectious because they are readily passed along 
from one person to another. Such diseases as smallpox, 
scarlet-fever, measles, etc., the germs of which may be 
carried in the air and breathed, are called contagious. The 
two terms are now used interchangeably. 

The non-infectious diseases, such as diabetes, rheumatism, 
alchoholism. and various inflammations of different organs, 



I. 



2. 



176 COMMUNITY HYGIENE 

are due to derangements in the working of these organs and 
the perverted work of certain cells. 

More people die from infectious than from non-infectious 
diseases. If, then, we can prevent the growth of germs, or 
their entrance into the body, we may save many lives. 

Some diseases are due to animal parasites such as mala- 
ria, trichinosis, hook-worm disease, dysentery, and others. 

How Disease Germs enter the Body. — Germs enter the 
body in many different ways, causing diseases of many 
different kinds ; for instance : 

By drinking infected 1 . . . . . 

, .,, >causmg typhoid fever, 

water and milk : J J * 

By breathing infected! ^^^f erculosis smallpox, 

> scarlet fever, measles, pneu- 
air: . ,. . . . ' 

J monia, diphtheria, colds. 

3 ' By inr c ted Un d!mkin 0r ) CaUSinS tuberculosis > ^ 

in ec . . . in ^" > theria, influenza, mumps, 

cups, knives, plates, ( ,.,.,. 
P „ v . : - ' \ tonsilitis. 

forks: ) 

4. By cuts and other ^causing blood poisoning from 

open wounds: j pus-germs, lockjaw. 

5. By infected discharges") 

on hands, and under (causing typhoid fever, cholera, 
finger-nails, being f dysentery, 
carried to the mouth : J 

6. By bites of insects ~) . . . . 

, ., ,,. causing malaria, yellow-fever, 

(mosquitoes, flies. > . . . , . . 

„ . . . N sleeping sickness, plague, 

fleas, bed-bugs) : J ° 

_ _ . . ~) causing hydrophobia, snake- 

7. By bites of animals: > 

9 J J poisoning. 



DISEASE AND GERMS 



77 



How Germs may Be Killed. — i. By direct sunshine and 
fresh air. 

An abundance of sunshine renders a place almost iree 
from disease germs. Sunlight destroys germs, partly by dry- 
ing the food upon which they live and partly by its own 
chemical action. In some hot and dry places as in the 
Sahara and the Great American Desert, decay is almost 




FILTER BEDS OF THE INDIANAPOLIS WATERWORKS. 

Here the water from White River is purified by filtering through layers of sand, gravel and 
perforated tile. 

unknown, for bodies become dry before the germs can 
grow. Darkness, decay, and disease go hand in hand. 
Fresh air and wind tend to carry germs away. Diseases 
are rarely transmitted in the open air, but in badly venti- 
lated rooms and especially in sick-rooms, where the germs 
collect in great numbers and not only re-infect the patient 
but endanger all who enter. 

2. By great heat and by boiling water. A substance 



178 COMMUNITY HYGIENE 

made free from germs is said to be "sterilized." This con- 
dition may be effected either by dry heat in an oven or 
by boiling. Boiling for ten minutes will kill all germs, but 
not all spores. These latter have often to be subjected to 
a higher temperature or to disinfectants to become sterile. 
All clothes and utensils used in a sick-room may be sterilized 
by boiling. Before operations all instruments are boiled, 
and the dressings subjected to a dry heat to sterilize them. 

3. By the action of drugs called germicides or disinfect- 
ants. Disinfectants are chemical agents which destroy 
germs. The following are the most generally used: 

For disinfecting rooms, formalin and sulphur are used, 
as these when vaporized come in contact with every part 
of the room and its contents. 

For clothes, bedclothes, towels, instruments, etc., a 5 % 
solution of carbolic acid is the best disinfectant. 

For discharges from patients, chloride of lime is much 
used. 

For disinfecting the hands and for washing wounds, 
bichloride of mercury, 1 part to 1,000 parts of water, is 
the best. It must be remembered that bichloride destroys 
iron and tin; therefore it must not be kept in vessels 
made of these metals, or used for instruments. 

Antiseptics are drugs which have'a mild action on germs. 
They retard the growth but do not actually kill them all. 
Examples: Boracic acid, oil of eucalyptus, etc. 

Typhoid Fever is caused by the typhoid germ. The 
germ gains entrance to the body through food and drink. 
About three-fourths of all cases are caused by infected water 
and one-fourth by infected milk. A few cases are due to 



DISEASE AXD GERMS 



79 



raw oysters coming from waters infected by sewage. Food 
is often infected by flies. The danger of this disease may be 
greatly lessened by screening all windows and doors, keeping 
flies away from our food, by drinking pure water and pure 
milk, and by using clean drinking vessels. Boiled water 
or milk is absolutely safe. Filtered water will keep back 
about nine-tenths of the germs. A filter consists of layers 
of coarse sand and gravel. Small 
house niters should be cleaned 
daily and boiled once a week. 
In cities using sand filters there 
is only about one-fourth as much 
typhoid as formerly. 

Impure milk may be due to 
dirty cans, or to washing milk 
cans with dirty water, or to the 
unclean hands and clothes of 
those who work around the con- 
stables, f 

t— 

Impure water from rivers and \ . 

wells is caused by the water I 

being contaminated with sewage 

in some way. In the little town 

of Plymouth Pa., there was a 

notable outbreak in 1885. Out of a population of 8,000, 

there were 1,100 cases of typhoid fever from the drinking 

water. On investigation it was found that the source of 

the stream which supplied the drinking water was polluted 

by one case of typhoid, in a house on a hill above the 

town where no sanitary precautions had been taken. It 

cost the town $8,000 for a hospital and estimating for loss 




A GOOD HOUSE f ILTER. 



i8o 



COMMUNITY HYGIENE 



of time, wages etc., the total cost of the outbreak was about 
$67,000. 

Many Diseases are Carried by Insects. — As stated, 
typhoid fever and tuberculosis are carried by flies. Mos- 
quitoes carry malaria and yellow fever. Fleas and bed- 
bugs carry the plague. 

House-flies or typhoid flies as they are sometimes called 
are very dirty insects. They breed in incredible numbers in 




Fig. q6.— A . Gadfly. B. Flea. C. Bedbug. 

horse manure or in the dust of houses . Twelve hundred house 
flies, at least, will issue from a pound of horse manure. 
Ten days completes a generation in the summer, and the 
number of eggs laid by each female averages 120. Flies 
swarm in kitchens and dining-rooms where food supplies 
are exposed. In this way food is frequently infected with 
many diseases. To get rid of them, stables and houses 
should be screened; food should be covered; and 
houses kept thoroughly clean so as to leave no breeding 
places for the eggs. The box-privy which is common in 
country districts should have its contents covered with lime 



DISEASE AXD GERMS 



181 



every three or four days or, better still, with earth, each 
time it is used. 

Garbage cans should always be covered; they should be 
emptied daily and scrubbed frequently with a broom and 
boiling water. 

Malaria. — This disease is not caused by a germ, but by 
an animal parasite in the blood. It was discovered in 1880 
by Laveran, but it was not until 1898 that Ross discovered 






Fig. 97. — House-fly and Larva. 



the mosquito as the host. The symptoms of malaria are 
chills, fever, and sweats. The malarial parasite breeds in 
a certain variety of mosquito only, and in the act of biting 
the mosquito deposits the eggs in the blood of the person 
bitten. These parasites attack the red blood corpuscles, grow 
quickly to the adult stage, and then break up into more eggs. 
The production of the eggs is marked by chills in the 
patient. Fever follows as the result of poisons in the blood, 
the red blood corpuscles are rapidly destroyed, and the 
person becomes very pale and anaemic. The mosquito 
breeds in low, swampy places, in stagnant water, contain- 



182 COMMUNITY HYGIENE 

ing no fish or frogs. The young are called wigglers, and 
must come to the surface to breathe. 

The malaria mosquito is the species Anopheles. It 
differs from the ordinary mosquito, the Culex, in two 
respects: it has spotted wings and its body is held out 
straight while the insect is biting. In the ordinary mos- 
quito the body is held at right angles while biting. 

Night air was formerly thought to be harmful, because 
people who were much in it developed malaria. We now 
know that the malaria was not due to night air, but to the 
bite of the mosquito, which is most active by night. 





Fig. 98. — The harmless mosquito on left. On right the Anopheles, or 
mosquito that carries malaria. 

Prevention of Malaria. — The beds of malarial patients 
should be screened from mosquitoes; houses should be 
screened; all stagnant pools, ponds, and swamps should 
be drained to prevent the breeding of mosquitoes. Old 
tin cans, buckets, or tubs should not be allowed to remain 
half full of water; pools should be stocked with fish and 
frogs to devour the young wigglers. If kerosene is poured 
on the surface of stagnant water it will form a thin film, 
through which the wigglers cannot breathe. One ounce 



DISEASE AND GERMS 



*3 




Fig. 99. Wigglers. 



is sufficient for fifteen square feet of surface. This last 
precaution should be taken twice a month. 

Yellow Fever,— This is caused either by a germ or a minute 

animal organism. This 





organism is carried by 
a certain kind of mos- 
quito known as the 
Stegomyia Calolpus. 
Yellow fever usually 
exists in low, swampy 
places. The method of 
prevention is the same 
as for malaria. Pre- 
vious to the occupation 
of Havana by the United States, that city was called the 
graveyard of the white man; now, yellow fever is almost 
unknown there. In 1900 our War 
Department appointed an Army 
Commission, consisting of Doctors 
Reed, Carroll, and Lazear, to inves- 
tigate yellow fever in Havana. All 
three allowed themselves to be bit- 
ten by mosquitoes which had pre- 
viously bitten yellow fever patients. 
All became infected with yellow fever 
and, though they lived to see their 
theories proved, they eventually 
succumbed to the disease. In grateful memory of these 
martyrs to science, the Government has erected a monu- 
ment to them in Washington, D. C, for through their 
sacrifice thousands of lives have been saved. 




Fig. 100. — The mosquito that 
carries yellow fever. 



184 COMMUNITY HYGIENE 

The New Orleans outbreak of yellow fever in 1905 was 
quickly stopped by anti-mosquito measures. It is conceded 
that more than four thousand lives were saved in the 
city that season by the intelligent application of meas- 
ures based upon the methods of the United States Army 
surgeons in Cuba in 1900 and 1901. 

The Canal Zone and Sanitation. — The Panama Canal 
proved a failure under the French, because most of the work- 
men died of malaria and yellow fever. Now, under the 
supervision of the United States Government, the houses are 
screened, towns and villages kept as clean and sanitary as 
possible, breeding pools covered with kerosene, and the 
building of the canal has become possible. Not a case of 
yellow fever has been reported for some time in the Canal 
Zone. 

If this Canal should serve no other purpose than that of 
an object lesson in sanitation, it will be worth to the United 
States and the civilized world far more than its total cost. 
In the report of the Sanitation Department of the Isthmian 
Canal Commission in March, 191 1, it is indicated that the 
Canal Zone, formerly swept by disease and pestilence, but 
now policed by General Gorgas and his sanitary inspectors, 
is about the safest place in the world to live. Of white 
employees and their families there are about 10,000, — a 
population equivalent to that of an average American city — 
among whom in that March there were only ten deaths. 
Of these ten, only two died from a preventable disease 
(pneumonia) . The other eight were the result of accidents 
and unavoidable diseases. 

No such result in the elimination of disease has ever 



DISEASE AND GERMS 



185 



before been established or even dreamed of. Yet, as good 
results could be secured in every community in the United 
States if the intelligent, painstaking, and scientific methods 
of General Ciorgas and his subordinates were only adopted. 




A STREET IX PANAMA, SHOWING THE INSANITARY CONDITIONS PREVAILING UNDER 
FRENCH ADMINISTRATION OF THE CANAL. 



The world has been shown that preventable disease is 
the result of ignorance and indifference, and that in view of 
our present knowledge of the causes and methods of pre- 
vention of disease, its continued existence is discreditable 
to modern civilization. 



i86 



COMMUNITY HYGIENE 



The Great " Black" or Bubonic Plague is not only carried 
by rats and mice, but very often by fleas and bedbugs; and 
this latter mode of infection must be reckoned with in all 
preventive methods. 

Pellagra, a disease common in Italy and in Georgia, now 
spreading through our southern states, is characterized by 




A STREET IN PANAMA UNDER THE ADMINISTRAHON OF THE UNITED STATES GOVERN- 
MENT SHOWING IMPROVEMENT IN SANITATION 



a peculiar eruption of the skin, especially of the hands and 
arms, and certain disorders of the digestive and nervous 
systems. The latest theory of its introduction into the 
human body is that the disease is carried by a blood-suck- 
ing gnat called the Simulium fly, which lays its eggs near 



DISEASE AND GERMS 187 

running streams. It was formerly thought to be caused 
by a fungous disease in corn. 

The Sleeping Sickness, common in Africa, is now known 
to be carried by the tsetse fly. Anthrax, a disease of cattle, 
is carried by gadflies or horseflies; and Texas fever, a disease 
of cattle, is communicated by the common cattle tick. 

In Egypt and the Fiji Islands there is a destructive eye 
disease carried by the common house-fly, while in our south- 
ern states a disease called pink-eye is caused by a very 
minute fly. 

Animal Parasites. — There are several diseases in man 
produced by minute animal parasites finding their way 
into the blood. Such diseases include hydrophobia, trich- 
inosis, uncinariasis or " hook-worm disease," malaria, 
yellow fever, and the sleeping sickness. Malaria, yellow 
fever, and the sleeping sickness have already been con- 
sidered. 

Hydrophobia usually results from the bite of a mad 
animal, i. e., one suffering from a disease called rabies, the 
minute organisms of which are in the saliva. Persons 
affected should immediately undergo the Pasteur treat- 
ment, which is a vaccination for hydrophobia. The animal 
should not be killed, but held in restraint and under ob- 
servation to ascertain if rabies is actually present. 

Trichinosis is a disease resulting from eating uncooked 
pork containing an animal parasite called the trichina 
spiralis. The disease is very painful, but not necessarily 
fatal, if the proper treatment is instituted at once. 

Uncinariasis or " hook-worm disease," which is widely 
prevalent among the " poor whites " throughout our south- 



188 COMMUNITY HYGIENE 

ern states, is now known to be caused by a tiny worm in 
the blood. The eggs, or larvae, are in the surface soil, 
where they attach themselves to the bare feet of the 
mountaineers, and thence by contact, find their way to 
the hands, the mouth, and the alimentary canal. This 
disease produces an intense anaemia, which largely ac- 
counts for the hitherto notorious " shiftlessness " and lazi- 
ness of these unfortunate people. This disease is easily 
cured however, by modern treatment, as has been abun- 
dantly demonstrated by the U. S. Medical Corps in Porto 
Rico, where more than 50% of the entire native popula- 
tion were sufferers from this disease. 



H— TUBERCULOSIS. 

Tuberculosis is caused by a rod-shaped germ, called the 
tubercle bacillus, discovered by Dr. Robert Koch, a German 
physician, in 1881. Tuberculosis is called the Great White 
Plague, because it kills more people than all the other 
infectious diseases combined. In the United States alone 
it kills four hundred people daily. The germ multiplies 
very rapidly; for example, in twenty-four hours one germ 
will produce ten million. 

Causes Which Favor Contraction of Tuberculosis. — 

1. Tubercular patients are likely to give the disease to 
their children very early in life because of the close contact 
in the home circle; especially is it communicable in kissing. 

2. Dust. Street dust is full of bacteria from the dried 
sputum of those who expectorate in the streets. 

3. Closed, badly ventilated rooms catch and hold the dust 
containing the germs. Foul air lowers the resisting power 
of the lungs to the germs. 

4. Anything which causes shallow breathing may be said 
to favor tuberculosis such as tight corsets, belts or collars, 
adenoids, chronic inflammation of any part of the respira- 
tory tract, producing colds, bronchitis, pleurisy, pneumonia. 

5. Sedentary occupations. Such occupations as require 
sitting indoors; those, for example, of clerks, bookkeepers, 
stenographers, dressmakers and milliners. 

6. Dusty occupations, as those of coal-miners, stone- 

180 



iqo 



COMMUNITY HYGIENE 




Courtesy of National Child Labor Committee. 

BREAKER BOYS IN A PENNSYLVANIA COAL COMPANY. 

(The youngest said he was thirteen, but this was doubtful.) 




Conrtesy of National Child Labor Committee. 

YOUNG SPINNER IN A MISSISSIPPI YARN MILL. 

(She said she was thirteen.) 



TUBERCULOSIS 191 

cutters, glass-workers, janitors, street-cleaners and factory 
workers, especially in cotton or wool. It frequently hap- 
pens that those who work out-of-doors, sleep in such badly 
ventilated rooms that they often contract the disease; as, 
for instance, the fishermen of Labrador. 

Most people who contract the disease are overworked, 
and underfed, and get little fresh air or sunshine. Tuber- 
culosis is common in dark, close, tenement-house districts. 
No child, is ever born with tuberculosis, but a tendency 
to the disease may be inherited. The germ may be taken 
into the body, not only with inhaled dust, but, by the mouth 
and alimentary canal from contact with infected drinking- 
cups, tooth-brushes, knives, forks, etc., and also by eating 
the meat and drinking the milk of infected cattle. 

Parts of the Body Commonly Attacked. — This disease 
may attack any part of the body, but the parts most 
commonly attacked are the following: 

1. The lungs. 

2. The bones and joints in children, as in hip and 
spine disease. 

3. The lymph glands 'n the neck producing a disease com- 
monly known as scrofula. 

4. The membranes covering the brain and spinal cord 
producing cerebral meningitis and spinal meningitis. 

5. The intestines, kidneys and skin. 

Symptoms. — Usually the first noticeable sign is a pro- 
gressive loss of weight and strength. There is a slight rise 
in temperature every afternoon or evening. Later a cough 
with expectoration may develop. The disease is generally 
painless, except for the spasms of coughing. If the disease 



192 



COMMUNITY HYGIENE 




WHERE THE CHILDREN PLAY IN A CROWDED TENEMENT DISTRICT. 



TUBERCULOSIS 



193 



begins first in the vocal cords of the larynx, the only 
symptom is a hoarse voice. Hoarseness is suspicious if it 
lasts longer than three weeks, and the patient should go 
to a throat specialist at once for examination. 

Duration of the Disease. — Tuberculosis generally lasts 
several years. There is one form, however, called " gallop- 
ing consumption" which may kill in a few weeks or months. 



FREE of COST! 




CHARACTERISTIC ADVERTISEMENTS OF " CONSUMPTION CURES.'' 

The Cure of Tuberculosis. — The cure for tuberculosis is 
fresh air, sunshine, good food and rest. Sometimes these 
remedies can be procured at home, but it is better, if possi- 
ble, to go to a Sanatorium or open-air hospital. Here the 
tubercular patient is taught how to care for himself. He 
is given only the proper food to eat, including plenty of milk 



194 COMMUNITY HYGIENE 

and eggs; he takes the required amount of rest and gets all 
the sunshine and fresh air possible, spending the entire 
day in the open air and sleeping out at night. On return- 
ing to his home he is supposed to go on with this treatment 
and not relapse into his old unhygienic way of living. In 
this way the Sanatorium is an educational 'institution. 
Proper care of this kind . in the first stage will cure more 
than one-half of all the cases of tuberculosis. All cases 
might be cured if they could only be taken in time. This 
is why the early recognition of the disease is so important. 

Medicine Is of Minor Importance. — ■ Medicine is of no 
use unless combined with fresh air, rest, good food, and 
sunshine. Patent medicines are a delusion. There are 
about five hundred of these "Consumption Cures" on the 
market, all claiming to cure tuberculosis, but as there is no 
known drug which will accomplish this end, they are 
frauds and should be studiously avoided. "Consumption 
Cures" are cruel, for they deceive the consumptive into 
thinking he is better, because of a temporary stimulation 
resulting from the alcohol in the remedy, while in the end the 
progress of the disease is actually hastened, since alcohol 
lowers the resistance of the body to disease. Morever, 
much time is lost in using them which should have been 
spent in securing proper treatment. 

Care of the Consumptive at Home. — Some people can- 
not go away to a Sanatorium, but must be cared for at home. 
To obtain out-of-door sleeping, many devices have been 
invented; one may sleep out on a porch or in a tent in the 
back yard or garden. 

The best place in a city is the roof of the house, as the air 



TUBERCULOSIS 



195 



is purer there than near the ground. Window-hoods for 
either the outside or inside of bedroom windows may be 
used, by means of which the patient's head is practically 
out of the window, while the body is in the room. 

Sometimes people have a morbid fear of the consumptive, 
an attitude which is cruel as well as ridiculous. If the 
proper precautions are taken, there is little danger of con- 
tracting the disease from living in the same house with the 




SLEEPING QUARTERS ON A CITY ROOF. 



consumptive. As the greatest danger lies in the sputum, 
the use of paper cups and handkerchiefs to be burned after 
using is a necessary precaution, while the dishes used at 
the table should be scalded immediately after using. 

Preventive Methods. — The disease is contracted by 
coming in contact with the germs which are always found in 
the sputum of tubercular patients. Flies may feed on the 
sputum, and then, carrying thousands of tubercular germs, 



196 



COMMUNITY HYGIENE 



walk over food which is exposed on the table. Tubercular 
sputum must therefore be collected and destroyed. For 
this purpose there are on the market various kinds of 
paper cups and paper handkerchiefs, which may be used 
to collect the sputum and then burned. If linen handker- 



m 


. 





Courtesy of the National Association for Prevention of Tuberculosis. 

EVEN AT NIGHT, THE PATIENT BREATHES ONLY OUTDOOR AIR. 



chiefs are used, they must be thoroughly boiled. Tubercular 
patients should be warned not to cough or sneeze on other 
people. 

The Public Drinking Cup. A campaign against the 
public drinking cup is now in progress. Kansas was the 
first state to abolish its use, while Michigan, Wisconsin, 



TUBERCULOSIS 



197 



Mississippi, New Jersey, New York, and Illinois have since 
fallen into line. 

The use of such a cup is an antiquated custom, as well as 
both distasteful and unhygienic. People do not wear 
public clothes, eat from public plates or smoke public 
cigars. Why, then, should they drink from public cups? 

Bacteriologists have made microscopic examinations of 




VARIOUS KINDS OF PAPER DRINKING CUPS. 



public cups collected from schools, hotels, railway stations, 
and stores ; which have been found to be infected with va- 
rious kinds of pus germs from boils and abscesses, and 
germs of diphtheria, pneumonia, and tuberculosis. 

Many public institutions, such as banks, department 
stores, schools, etc., have installed the bubble fountain, 
which does away altogether with the use of a cup. The 
individual drinking cup is the next best in hygienic useful- 



198 



COMMUNITY HYGIENE 



ness. It is a stiff paper cup, purchased at a slot machine 
for one cent. There are also on the market folding paper 
cups which can be carried in an envelope. Much can 
be done by the use of such cups in eliminating many of the 
infectious diseases. 

Fresh Air Schools for tuberculous children were inaugu- 
rated in Chicago in 1910. These children were below 

grade, made little prog- 
ress, attended irregularly 
and gave their teachers 
much trouble. After six 
or eight months in the 
new school, the children 
came regularly, were 
wonderfully improved in 
health, and became good 
students. Recently in 
191 1, such a school has 
been opened in Philadel- 
phia in a roof garden. 
The children arrive at 8 
A. M., and spend the en- 
tire day ; being provided 
with their breakfast, 
dinner and supper. Not 
only are these children taught the usual school branches 
but time is found for rest, games, and bathing; and the 
serving of nourishing food. Much should be accomplished 
by such a movement, and if successful the Board of Edu- 
cation will probably provide for many such schools. 




A HYGIENIC DRINKING FOUNTAIN. 
(// helps to diminish contagious diseases.) 



TUBERCULOSIS 



199 



ill 

-* 


'.^ -{(nB» 






jz^3iL 


lar * ~~ 




x # 


*■ "* 15* 






, ' * 


■ 



C curtesy of The Survey. 



FRESH AIR SCHOOL AT PROVIDENCE, R. I. 




AIR PREVENTORIUM AT LAKEWOOD, N. J. 



III.— VACCINATION AND ANTITOXINS. 

Vaccination was discovered in 1798 by Dr. Edward 
Jenner, an English physician. It consists in the inocula- 
tion of a person with the germs of cowpox. Inoculation is 
the injection of some substance under the skin. Im- 
munity is that condition of the body in which it is proof 
against a disease. 

Cowpox is a weak form of smallpox as it is found in the 
cow. If the germs of cowpox are inoculated, the blood 
of the person so inoculated forms bodies called antitoxins, 
which fight not only the cowpox but also the smallpox. 

Conditions Previous to Vaccination. — Smallpox was at 
one time one of the most common causes of death. Almost 
every person over thirty years of age had had it, many ol 
whom were left blind and deaf. In the eighteenth century, 
sixty millions died from it in Europe alone. 

In the twenty years between 1874 and 1894, Austria, 
which had no compulsory vaccination laws, recorded 239,800 
deaths from smallpox, while Prussia, with compulsory 
vaccination laws, had only 8,500 deaths. In Philadelphia, 
Boston, and New York, there were terrible epidemics of 
smallpox in Colonial days. Now the disease is compara- 
tively rare, many doctors having never seen a case. 

In March, 191 1, there was published an interesting report 
on vaccination and smallpox in the Philippines, by Victor 
G. Heiser, M. D., Director of Health in the Philippines, and 



VACCINATION AND ANTITOXINS 



20T 



Robert Oleson, M. D., United States Marine Hospital 

Service. They reported as follows: 

"The efficiency of vaccination as a preventive against 
smallpox has been conclusively and effectively demonstrated 
since the American occupation of these Islands. During the 
Spanish rule, it was necessary each year to erect in Manila a 
large temporary hospital for smallpox and always a majority 
of the patients died. During the past five years, not one 
person has died in Manila from smallpox who had been 
successfully vaccinated during the five previous years, nor 
has any one died of smallpox in Manila since June 1909. 
In 1907, systematic vaccination was completed in the six 
provinces near Manila. These provinces, containing over 
a million people, have from time immemorial had an annual 
mortality from this disease of about 6,000 people Since 
1907 not one person successfully vaccinated has died from 
smallpox in the six provinces. Only a few cases have even 
occurred, and among these there were no deaths in persons 
successfully vaccinated." 

This report should prove a conclusive answer to those 
misguided persons who, through ignorance, oppose vacci- 
nation. 

Process of Vaccination. — The arm, or thigh, should be 
thoroughly cleansed with soap and warm water and a brush, 
then washed with alcohol, followed by sterilized water. 

The skin is then gently 
scratched with a surgi- 
cally clean knife or 
needle, not enough to 
draw blood, but only a 
clear fluid called lymph. 
The vaccine is then ap- 
plied from a tube or a 
point. A shield is put 



ff 




Fig. ioi. — (A) Vaccine in tubes. (B) Box of 
Vaccine p>inti. (Q ^I.iold. 



202 



COMMUNITY HYGIENE 



on and, in about a week a small pimple appears, which 
gets larger, discharging pus for about a week. A third 
week is allowed for the drying of the scab. The sign of a 
good "take" is the presence of a few pits in the skin, not 
necessarily a large scar. During the discharging period, 
the patient may feel dull and drowsy for 
'"Jr a few days. Frequently however there 

are no special symptoms. 

Vaccination causes immunity for a 
period of about ten or twelve years. 
Therefore one should be vaccinated 
about every ten years but oftener during 
epidemics. 

Vaccination against Typhoid Fever. — 
It is now possible to vaccinate against 
typhoid infection. During the Spanish- 
American War, 1898-9, out of 120,000 
men on the field, there were 20,000 cases 
of typhoid fever with a mortality of 7%. Of all the Vol- 
unteers, 90% became infected with typhoid within eight 
weeks of mobilization. 

"During the outbreak in Mexico in the Spring of 191 1, 
there were 18,000 of our troops called out in Texas and 
California. These men lived in tents for over two months, 
in a rain-soaked country where the roads were full of thick 
mud. By the use of anti-typhoid vaccine, there was but one 
case in all these troops, and that was a teamster who had 
not been vaccinated." — Report of the United States War Of- 
fice. 

This report shows conclusively the value of this form of 
vaccination. 




Courtesy of Dr. Jay 
Schamberg. 

APPEARANCE OF NORMAL 
VACCINATION ON THE 
SEVENTH DAY. 



Antitoxins are substances formed in the blood to fight 



VACCINATION AND ANTITOXINS 203 

against disease. The use of antitoxins was first discovered 
by Louis Pasteur, in 1880. He found that by inoculating 
chickens first with a weak solution of the germs of chicken 
cholera, and then with a stronger solution, he could make 
chickens immune to the disease. From this discovery, 
antitoxins for many diseases have been used with great 
success. We have antitoxins now for diphtheria, tetanus 
or lockjaw, tuberculosis, pneumonia, and hydrophobia. 

In Pennsylvania the State Commissioner has recently 
issued the statement that during the year 19 10, free dis- 
tribution of 5 ,000 unit doses of diphtheria antitoxin instead 
of the ordinary 3 ,000 unit doses has lowered the mortality 
from 8% to 6.61%. The mortality in cases not treated 
with antitoxin was 42%. 

An immunizing dose is a smaller dose of antitoxin than 
the ordinary used as a preventive. It has no bad effect on 
the heart, nor does it cause paralysis, but the poisons of 
diphtheria cause both. Antitoxin is expensive, but in all 
large cities it may be obtained free from the Board of Health 
for the use of the poor. 

The Pasteur treatment for hydrophobia, a disease 
produced by the bite of a mad animal, consists in the in- 
oculation of the sufferer with several weak solutions of 
hydrophobia germs, in increasing doses. 

Cattle are now inoculated with anti-tuberculosis serum 
with great success. 



IV. — NARCOTICS. 

Narcotics. — These are substances which deaden the 
nervous system. Many poisons such as alcohol and tobacco 
are stimulants in small quantities and narcotics in large 
quantities. The narcotic effect is due to the fact that the 
poison so benumbs the nerves and injures the cells that 
they are unable to act properly. The stimulating effect 

comes first, followed by the nar- 
cotic effect. 

The principal narcotics are al- 
cohol in large quantities, tobacco, 
opium, morphine, chloral, hash- 
eesh, and many patent medicines. 

Alcohol. — The first effect of 
alcohol is a stimulating one; the 
heart beats faster and the skin 
becomes flushed because the blood 
vessels are relaxed. The narcotic 
effect is much more powerful. All 

the faculties are benumbed, and the drinker falls into a 

stupor, or becomes "dead drunk." 

Tobacco consists of the dried leaves of a plant growing 
extensively in Virginia, West Virginia, Kentucky, and many 
other parts of the South, as well as in the West Indies. It 
contains a substance called nicotine, which is responsible 




TOBACCO PLANT. 



204 



NARCOTICS 205 

for the bad effects of the tobacco. Two or three drops of 
pure nicotine will kill a man. 

Injurious Effects of Tobacco. — Tobacco smoke fre- 
quently causes chronic inflammation of the nose and throat, 
a hacking cough, or a hoarse voice. The smoke is also 
very irritating to the lungs. The sense of taste and of 
smell are both impaired. If there is a tendency toward 
cancer, the irritation of a cigar or pipe may cause cancer of 
the lip, tongue or throat. 

" Tobacco heart" is indicated by an irregular heart-beat, 
with fluttering and palpitation. 

Chewing tobacco is both a coarse and offensive habit. 
It discolors the teeth, wastes the saliva, weakens the glands, 
and irritates the stomach. The poisonous nicotine is 
absorbed by the mucous lining of the mouth. Chewing 
encourages spitting, another bad habit, which spreads many 
kinds of germs throughout the atmosphere. 

Cigarettes are much more injurious than pipes or cigars, 
because the smoke is inhaled. The absorbing surface in 
the lungs is a hundred times larger than that of the mouth, 
and the effects of the nicotine are multiplied. Most 
cigarettes are flavored with drugs which color the fingers of 
the smoker yellow, and opium is common in cigarettes, 
increasing the harmful effects. A great part of the craving 
which cigarettes induce is probably due to the opium. 

Pipe Smoking. — As nicotine accumulates in the bowl 
an old pipe becomes very strong and very injurious, the 
same being true of the stump of a cigar or cigarette. Sir 
Henry Thompson says: "The only persons who enjoy 
smoking are those who smoke in great moderation. Men 



206 



COMMUNITY HYGIENE 



who are rarely seen without a cigar between the lips have 
long ceased to enjoy smoking. They are confirmed in a 
habit, and are merely miserable when the cigar is absent." 

Tobacco and Crime. — It is a well-known fact that a 
large percentage of the boys who appear in the Juvenile 
Courts bear the yellow stains on their fingers which in- 
dicate the cigarette smoker. Many large corporations, 

including street and railway com- 
panies will not employ men who 
drink or smoke. Men to be 
eligible must be physically, men- 
tally, and morally sound, and the 
man who indulges in alcohol or 
tobacco does not come under 
this class. In some states, it is 
against the law to sell cigarettes 
to minors, and in other states 
their manufacture is prohibited. 
Alcohol and tobacco often go 
hand in hand. Tobacco produces 
a dry mouth which demands 
drink, while alcohol causes a nervous excitement which 
the tobacco tends to allay. 

Opium is a narcotic drug made from the dried milky 
juice of the poppy plant growing in South Asia. A very 
small dose is stimulating, but its narcotic effect appears 
immediately and drowsiness and sleep follow. Opium is 
used by physicians to relieve pain, produce sleep, lessen 
hemorrhage, and to quiet the intestines. It should be 
taken only under and by the direction of a physician. 




OPIUM PLANT. 



NARCOTICS 207 

Forms of Opium. — Opium is found in laudanum, pare- 
goric, and Dover's powder. Morphine is a white powder 
or alkaloid obtained from opium; paregoric and laudanum 
are frequently found in teething and soothing syrups for 
babies. 

The Opium Habit. — The main action of opium is on 

the nervous system, but it acts also on the heart and the 
alimentary canal. Indigestion in all its forms sets in; the 
trouble extends to the liver, and the vitality of the whole 
body is lowered; the skin becomes yellow, the bod} 
emaciated, and there is a marked loss of moral tone. A 
victim of the opium habit will lie and steal to obtain more 
opium. This drug is more enslaving and more harmful in 
its effects than alcohol. The only cure is to keep the 
patient away from the drug. A few weeks' confinement 
early in the habit will be sufficient; the awful craving for 
the drug will gradually disappear and health will return. 

Opium Poisoning. — The ordinary dose is one grain — 
foui grains will produce death. The signs of poisoning 
are a deep sleep from which the patient cannot be aroused, 
very slow breathing, slow pulse, pale and clammy skin, and 
pin-point pupils. 

Treatment: Try to arouse the patient by slapping and 
pinching; two persons should walk him up and down; 
shake vigorously and dash cold water upon the face. If 
the patient can swallow, give an emetic, such as a table- 
spoonful of mustard in a glass of water. After vomiting 
is induced, give as much strong black coffee as possible. 
Call a physician, who will attend to giving such other 
antidotes and stimulants as may be necessary. 



208 COMMUNITY HYGIENE 

Chloral is a crystalline powder which will also produce 
sleep. Twenty grains is the dose, and an overdose will 
produce death. Chloral is sometimes taken instead of 
opium, and the injurious effects are almost as bad. The 
treatment for chloral poisoning is the same as for opium. 

Hasheesh is the juice of the Indian hemp, or Cannabis 
Indica. It produces a happy delirum with visions of 
beautiful scenes and persons. The hasheesh habit ruins 
body and mind in much the same way as opium. 

Chloroform is a sweet-smelling liquid, used as a general 
anaesthetic for surgical operations. A few whiffs of the 
vapor causes insensibility, which may easily result in death 
if the patient is not carefully watched. No one should 
ever smell a bottle of chloroform, for two or three inhala- 
tions may render the person unconscious. 

Cocaine is a drug which is used to produce local anaes- 
thesia, i. e., a loss of the sense of feeling in any part. It is 
injected under the skin or applied to the mucous membrane 
in surgical operations. Cocaine, taken internally, causes 
a pleasant excitement and persons soon become slaves to 
i,ts use. When taken in this way it disturbs the heart, 
circulation, digestion, and nutrition, soon causing death. 
The cocaine habit is even more terrible than the opium 
habit, and is often acquired by taking patent medicines 
or by drinking much of some of the hot weather bever- 
ages, popularly known as "soft drinks." 



V.— ALCOHOL. 



How Alcohol Is Produced. — The most common way of 
making alcohol is to grow a plant, called yeast, in a liquid 
containing sugar. The yeast plant is a microscopic, one- 
celled plant, which will grow rapidly in a warm atmos- 
phere. In an hour or two, the growing yeast will separate 
the sugar into carbon diox- 
ide ( shown by bubbles of 
gas) and alcohol. This proc- 
ess is called fermentation. 

Distillation. — When the 
amount of alcohol in a fer- 
menting liquid equals one- 
seventh of the solution, it 
kills the yeast plants and 
fermentation stops. To get 
a stronger solution of the 
alcohol, the first solution 

must be heated and the vapor from it collected as it is 
driven off. The vapor is then chilled by cold water which 
changes it back again into a liquid, thus producing a 
second solution much stronger than the first. This proc- 
ess is called distillation, and alcoholic drinks are called 
distilled liquors or spirits. 

Wood alcohol or methyl alcohol is used in the adulteration 
of cheap whiskies, and in various essences and colognes. 
When taken internally it causes blindness. 

209 




Fig. To-._Yeast Plants. 



2IO 



COMMUNITY HYGIENE 



Ethyl or grain alcohol is the main constituent of all 
alcoholic drinks. 

Fermented liquors include all wines and malt liquors. 
Wines are made by the action of yeast on fruits; they 
contain from 10% to 20% alcohol. 

Malt liquors are made from sprouted grain or malt. 
They include beer, porter, and stout, and contain from 3% 
to 5% alcohol. 

Distilled liquors include whisky, brandy, rum, and gin. 
They contain from 
50% to 60% alco- 
hol. 

Many patent 
medicines contain 
a large amount of 
alcohol varying 
from 10% to 40% 
which gives a tem- 
porary feeling of 
stimulation, but FlG ' ** ~ Distilling Apparatus " 

after this wears away, the patient feels worse than before 
and craves more of the medicine: Thus the alcohol habit 
is formed. 

Effects of Alcohol on the Body. — The main effect of 
alcohol is on the nervous system. Therefore alcoholism 
is now classed with the nervous diseases. Death from 
swallowing a large dose is rare, though it occasionally hap- 
pens in the case of children. 

In acute alcoholic poisoning the main effects are on the 
heart and circulation. In chronic alcoholic poisoning the 
heart and abdominal organs are mainly affected. 




ALCOHOL 211 

The efect on the heart and blood vessels is most commonly 
a fatty degeneration of the muscles of the heart. The 
arteries become diseased and hardened. Apoplexy and 
sudden death sometimes result. 

Effect on the lungs: Congestion and pneumonia are 
common and the use of alcohol predisposes to tuberculosis 
by lowering the bodily resistance. 

Effect on the liver: Fatty degeneration usually takes 
place, or a hardening, with either enlargement or shrivel- 
ling of the organ. 

Effect on the spleen and pancreas: There is a chronic 
hardening of both these organs. 

Effect on the kidneys: There is congestion and hard- 
ening, with a tendency to a disease of the kidneys, called 
Bright's disease. 

Effect on the stomach: All forms of indigestion and 
gastritis. 

Effect on the nervous system: Alcohol destroys the nerve 
cells. It produces congestion and inflammation of the 
brain, cord, and nerves. The first symptoms are a weak- 
ening of the will and a degeneration of the moral nature 
with untidiness, slovenliness, failure to keep promises, and 
loss of responsibility in caring for the family. Alcoholics lose 
all sense of shame* they are irritable, and are subject to sud- 
den fits of anger, in which children are often cruelly punished 
for some trifling fault. Conceit, profanity, and immorality 
mark the drunkard's downward course. Mental degenera- 
tion may go on for years, until the victim of alcohol becomes 
a nuisance and a burden to the community. Alcoholics 
are more liable to injury and succumb more readily to in- 
fectious diseases, especially pneumonia and tuberculosis, 



212 COMMUNITY HYGIENE 

from which many die as, also, from delirium tremens and 
apoplexy. 

Alcohol as a Medicine. — Alcohol is sometimes used as a 
temporary stimulant in cases of fainting. Aromatic spirits 
of ammonia, however, is better. Formerly alcoholic liquors 
were kept in many homes for use in sickness, but now 
educated people know that they are of but little or no 
value as medicine. 

Alcohol as a Food.— There is some dispute with regard to 
this point. In some wasting diseases a very small quantity 
may be burned up in the tissues and thus retard tissue 
waste, but even this use is attended with risk, as the 
alcohol habit may result. 

Children of Alcoholic Parents. — Such children inherit a 
weakened and unstable nervous system, which makes them 
liable to excess in all things. Many come into the world 
either feeble-minded or idiotic, and epileptic fits are common 
among them. The children of alcoholics are usually small 
in stature, and of weak muscular development. They are 
prone to disease and many die in infancy. 

Prof. Demme of Stuttgart studied the cases of ten 
families of drunkards and ten total abstinence families for 
ten years, with the following results: 

Number of children . . . , 

Died before six weeks of age . 
Idiots . . . . . 

Stunted growth . 

Epilepsy . 

Nervous during childhood, but cured 
Ordinary good health during childhood 



runkard's 
Family 

57 


Total 

Abstainer's 
Family 

6l 


25 
6 


5 



5 





5 




6 


17 -s% 


81.5% 



ALCOHOL 213 

Occupations which Tend to Induce Alcoholism. — Persons 
engaged in occupations which require mental strain, worry, 
excitement, and irregular hours tend most toward alcohol- 
ism, as for instance, journalists, actors, book-keepers, clerks, 
and stenographers. A monotonous existence is another 
factor favoring alcoholism. Occupations alternating be- 
tween hard work and periods of idleness, especially in 
large cities, also tend to form the habit, as in the case of 
bricklayers, carpenters, masons. Laundresses and cooks, 
dressmakers and milliners are more likely to drink than 
those working in factories and shops. During strikes, 
there is a great increase in drunkenness, in both men 
and women. 

Alcoholism is more prevalent in males than females, 
though the latter take to it earlier. Women are more 
quickly poisoned than men, because men, by reason of 
heavier muscular work, burn up more alcohol and thus 
escape some of its poisonous effects. 

Drinking in moderation is a relative term; moderation 
for one, may be excess for another. Many moderate 
drinkers may use alcohol throughout a long life, while 
others, after a short period of drinking, find their bodies 
permanently injured. 

Relation of Alcoholism to Poverty and Crime. — Alcohol 
and poverty and crime go together. Monotonous labor, 
long hours, and poor and insufficient food tempt the laborer 
to drink in order to forget his miserable existence. Drunk- 
enness in turn causes more poverty, which causes more 
drunkenness, and thus a vicious circle is formed. 

Alcoholism in destroying character, blunts the sense of 
right and wrong so that crime comes easily to the alcoholic. 



214 COMMUNITY HYGIENE 

An examination of the records of state prisons, reforma- 
tories, and houses of correction, will easily show the large 
proportion of cases due to alcohol. No other offense 
causes so many arrests in the police courts, and a large 
percentage of the number of inmates in hospitals for the 
insane is due directly to alcoholic insanity. England 
reports one-half her crimes due to strong drink; Russia 
one-fourth due to the same cause. 

Loss to the State through Alcoholism. — Education of 
the public, mainly through the public schools, has done 
much toward reducing the amount of alcohol used in 
America. Still, however, immense quantities are consumed 
yearly although it is easily proved that poverty, crime, 
and disease are nearly all caused by alcohol. The evil 
results are so great as to be almost incredible. The 
time lost to honest labor through sickness and suffer- 
ing, through imprisonment for crimes, through detention 
in hospitals for the insane and in almshouses, could be 
estimated in millions of dollars, to say nothing of the 
homes broken up, the characters ruined, and the bodies 
destroyed. 



VI.— PATENT MEDICINES. 

A patent medicine, a quack medicine or secret nostrum 
is one composed of drugs, the names or quantities of which 
are known to the manufacturer only. The composition 
of such medicines is kept secret so that the profit made 
from the sale of the remedies may accrue to a certain person 
or firm. This does not conform to the code of ethics 
adopted by the medical profession at large. The really 
great discoveries in the medical world have been given 
freely to the public; i. e., vaccination for smallpox, the 
use of ether and chloroform as anaesthetics, antitoxins 
for certain diseases, such as diphtheria and cerebro- 
spinal meningitis. In these cases the public has only 
paid for the actual cost of the remedies, while the doctors 
who discovered them gained nothing from their discov- 
eries but the glory and the gratitude of succeeding gen- 
erations. 

The patent medicine business in the United States is 
one of large proportions. It is estimated to-day at seventy- 
five millions of dollars, wholesale, and one hundred millions 
retail. Of this amount about forty millions go to the 
newspapers and journals for advertising purposes. There 
are at least five patent medicine concerns which expend 
one million dollars annually for advertising. 

Excessive Profits in Patent Medicines. — Most patent 
medicines are made of cheap ingredients and are sold at 

215 



2l6 



COMMUNITY HYGIENE 



large profits. Many have been investigated by the 
American Medical Association and by the Government, 
which have been found yielding a profit of from 100% to 
500%. For instance, some very common patent medicines 
selling for one dollar a bottle cost from six to fifteen cents 
to manufacture. Many contain little but water and some 
coloring matter, while others are made of the most ordinary 
household remedies. 

The Worthlessness of Patent Medicines. — The only 
evidence of good accomplished by patent remedies is the 
claims of the manufacturers and their testimonial letters. 
We cannot accept the formulas on the bottles, as the state- 
ments may be false. Most of the letters, too, are fraudulent. 
On investigation, a certain commission found that in many 
cases, the persons in whose names these letters were written 
were dead; in other cases, the addresses were false; and in 
still others, the letters contained inaccurate statements or 
downright lies. 



LETTERS FOR Rent 


MEDICAL 


MEDICAL. 5,000 Dr. Stevens & Co. 
• Columbus, Ohio. Nervous debility. 

MEDICAL. 2,000 L. West, Avon, N. Y. 
Nervous debility, first repb'es. 


300,000 Jas. Wm. Kidd medical file cards repre- 
senting all kinds of diseases (will sort) 1004. 

180,000 men's matrimonial, 35,000 women's '04, 
1st. 
200,000 agents and canvassers. 
50,000 Dr. Pierce order blanks, '02, '03, 
20,000 Ozomulsion order blanks, '03. 
30,280 Theo. Noel, '02, '03, medical file cards. 
59.000 Agents' directory, '03, '04, '05. 
250,000 Home work, '03, '04, '05. 
27,500 Rosebud trust, firsts, '03, '04. 
19,500 Bond Jewelry payups, trust, '04, envelopes. 
52,000 ioc song orders. Star Music Co., '04, '05. 
17,500 Dr. May & Friar, ladies' regulator '03, 04. 
6,000 Nervous debility, '03, '04, Appliance Co. 

Over 1,000,000 letters on hand, all kinds. Call or 
write me for samples and ads. Letters bought. 


MEDICAL. Dr. Pierce Order blanks 50,- 

000; 1902, '03. 
MEDICAL Ozomulsion. 20,000, 1903. 
MEDICAL. 30,280. Theo. Noel file cards. 

I902-'o3. 
MEDICAL. 24,500, Physician's Inst, and 

Edson France. Women's, 1903. 

7,000 first replies late 1904. 


13,000 late 'o2-'o3-'o4 letters in 
answer to above ad . 



TWO ADVERTISEMENTS IN RECENT PERIODICALS. 
WHAT IS LIKELY TO BECOME OF YOUR "SACRED CONFIDENCE." 



PATENT MEDICINES 217 

Testimonials. — One of the most disgraceful and dis- 
gusting features of the patent medicine business is the 
marketing of letters sent by patients under the seal of 
''sacred confidence." Only one letter in a thousand reaches 
the doctor to whom it is addressed. These so-called con- 
fidential letters are opened by men and women clerks who 
are paid salaries for just this work. The letters are sorted 
and certain previously typewritten answers are mailed as 
answers. The letters are then turned over to letter 
brokers, who dispose of them to other patent medicine 
firms for various sums, ranging from one-half to five cents 
per letter. In a certain magazine may be seen such adver- 
tisements as the following, showing, all too plainly what be- 
comes of the letters written in confidence : 

"For sale, 7,000 paralysis letters, 9,000 narcotic letters, 
5,200 consumption letters, 300 cancer letters, 6,500 deaf 
letters." 

Harm Wrought by Patent Medicines. — The results of 
patent medicines are often sad and cruel. For instance, 
there is no known drug which will cure either consumption 
or cancer, and yet there are on the market hundreds of 
so-called "Cures" for both these diseases. The precious 
time wasted in taking these remedies often makes it too 
late, after the patient realizes that he has been swindled 
out of health and money, to use the proper treatment". 
Then, also, some of these cures have a temporary stimu- 
lating effect, often due to the alcohol in them; false hopes 
are raised for a brief time, but soon the patient becomes 
worse and the awakening to this fact is pitiable. 

Harmful Drugs in Patent Medicines. — Alcohol is found 



2l8 



COMMUNITY HYGIENE 



in most of the general tonics, nerve tonics, stomach bitters, 
and medicinal foods, the percentage ranging from 10% to 
45%- (Compare this with the percentages in the alcoholic 
drinks — malt liquors 3% to 5%, wines 10% to 20%, and 
distilled liquors 50% to 60%). Many people have become 
thoroughly addicted to alcohol through the use of patent 
medicines, and especially is this true of women. 

Opium in various forms, chloral, and chloroform, are 
found in cough mixtures, colic mixtures, soothing and teeth- 
ing syrups. Thousands of babies have been killed by 
soothing syrups given to them by ignorant mothers. 

Cocaine is generally found in asthma cures, cold cures, 
catarrh powders, hay fever remedies, etc. It is very 
easy to form the cocaine habit, which, as already stated, 
is as harmful and perhaps more dreadful in its results 
than the opium habit. 





B 

19-85^ 




c 

25^ 




WHISKY 
50$ 


CHAMPAGNE 
9% 


CLAREIT 



BE1ER 
5# 



Fig. 104. — Percentage of alcohol in patent medicines as compared with 
that in alcoholic beverages. 



Acetanilide is a coal tar product found in most headache 
remedies. This drug is very depressing to the heart and 
will permanently injure it; it is also harmful to the blood. 



PATENT MEDICINES 



219 



The habitual use of headache powders is now very com- 
mon, especially among girls and women, and people who 
depend on them find they cannot do without them. Ace- 
tanilide gives only temporary relief by depressing the 
nerves and, when the action wears off, the original head- 
ache returns. 

Remedy for this Evil. — The question is often asked, 
"Why do patent medicines seem to be so successful? " 
The answer lies in the fact that the sick are always 
hopeful. They are always willing to try new cures; they 




s^jgUgtel FITSbUHtU -^E^ps&ss 

^^^5 tsmzmm 9*hM?tm 




EXAMPLES Of PATENT ..F.; . IVF, ADVERTISEMENTS. 



220 COMMUNITY HYGIENE 

believe the testimonials, so many of which are fraudulent. 
The repeated and continued advertising of patent medicines 
has the effect of making people believe that there must be 
some good in them. The manufacturers of these remedies 
often advertise great honors conferred on them by certain 
colleges and societies, which upon investigation are found 
to be non-existent or swindles. Many reputable papers, 
magazines and even religious journals, knowing patent 
medicines to be frauds, continue to give them advertising 
space, because of the liberal sum paid by the companies for 
advertisement. To remedy this evil: — 

i. The public must be educated. This may be accom- 
plished by lectures, books, newspapers, magazine articles, 
and instruction in the schools. 

2. People should stop buying patent medicines. 

3. The public should withdraw patronage from papers 
and journals that advertise patent medicines. 

4. Better laws should be enacted, prohibiting or limit- 
ing the manufacture and sale of these remedies. 

The Food and Drugs Act, which went into effect June 
30, 1906, is good as far as it goes. It simply requires, 
however, that the percentage of alcohol and dangerous 
drugs used in any patent medicine be printed on the label; 
it does nothing whatever to limit the manufacture of the 
remedy. Much remains to be done in this direction as 
many people do not take the trouble to read the labels, 
and many more are ignorant of the poisonous effects of 
some of the ingredients. 



Vn. — PUBLIC WORK. 

Lockjaw and the Fourth of July.— Tetanus or lockjaw 
germs grow in the earth, shut off from the air. They reach 
the body through wounds — especially wounds in the feet. 
In 1903 the first report of Fourth of July fatalities was pub- 
lished by the Journal of the American Medical Association. 
In that year 466 persons were killed and 4,000 injured as a 
direct result of the celebration. Of those killed, 400 died 
from lockjaw, the germs being blown in with dirt, dust, and 
powder. Of those injured, many were made blind for life, 
some had their fingers, hands, arms, and legs torn off, and 
were otherwise mutilated. Since 1903 public sentiment 
has gradually been turning against this method of celebrat- 
ing. Magazines, newspapers, and clubs have taken the 
matter up, and towns and cities have legislated against it, 
with such splendid results that the movement is now nation- 
wide. This change means the saving of thousands of 
lives, the prevention of thousands of accidents, and the 
saving of millions of dollars' worth of property from fire. 
Instead of a hideous nightmare of noise and discomfort, we 
now look forward to a safe and sane celebration which 
will develop respect for law and order as well as genuine 
patriotism. 

Boards of Health. — In every large city and town there 
is a Board or Bureau of Health; and in every small town 
or village there are certain persons whose duty it is to 

221 



222 



COMMUNITY HYGIENE 



guard the health of the community. These officers must 
see that the laws are enforced which provide for the preven- 
tion of sickness and the spread of infectious diseases; they 
must see that houses containing infectious diseases are 
placarded with a conspicuous notice; that the inmates are 
quarantined and the house disinfected after the patient has 




Copyright, Underwood and Underwood, N. Y. 

PUBLIC SENTIMENT IS FOR THE SAFE AND SANE FOURTH. 

recovered. They are also responsible for a pure water 
supply and a pure and clean milk supply. They must see 
that garbage and sewage are properly disposed of, and that 
dead animals are removed from streets and lots; that 
houses have proper plumbing, and that people are clean. 
They must inspect dairies, slaughter-houses, markets, etc., 
and collect statistics as to births and deaths, — the latter 



PUBLIC WORK 



223 



being called vital statistics. The Bureau of Health also 
controls the tenement districts in large cities; and, in gen- 
eral looks after all things that tend to influence the health 
of the community. 

The Department of Street Cleaning should work in con- 
junction with the Board of Health. Waste paper, skins 




DISINFECTION OF CLOTHING AT A QUARANTINE STATION. 

Steam or formaldehyde gas is turned into the great steel tubes in which the wire cases 
0] clothing are placed. 

of fruits, etc., should never be thrown into the street; nor 
should stores and houses be swept into the street. 

Physicians and people in all walks of life should endeavor 
to work with the Board of Health in promoting the health 
and happiness of the general public, and never work against 
them by trying to outwit them or breaking the rules. 

Quarantine Stations. — These are established at all ports 
of entry into this country. Each immigrant is examined by 
the quarantine officers and by this method all persons suffer- 



224 COMMUNITY HYGIENE 

ing with infectious diseases or dangerous chronic diseases, 
as well as the insane and the idiots, can be detained and, if 
necessary, deported. Ships containing cases of infectious 
disease are held in quarantine and fumigated, while all 
persons on board are held for a certain length of time to 
determine if any more cases will develop among them. In 
this way our country is protected from many diseases and 
from such severe outbreaks as have occurred in the past 
of cholera, plague, and smallpox. 

Sanatoriums. — These are open-air hospitals, which may 
be under private or State management. Such institutions 
are for the treatment of tuberculosis, nervous diseases, 
drug habits, etc. Many states have established sanatoriums 
for the open-air treatment of tuberculosis. In Pennsylvania 
there is one at White Haven and another at Mount Alto, 
while throughout large cities there are Free State Dispensaries 
for the examination and treatment of all poor tuberculous 
patients. 

Hospitals, — These are buildings for the care of the sick. 
All cases of accidents and emergency illness of any kind may 
be sent to a hospital by calling the ambulance of that hos- 
pital or a police patrol. For the benefit of the very poor 
there are dispensaries of all kinds in every hospital, where a 
doctor's advice and medicine may be obtained free or for a 
very small sum. In large cities these dispensaries have 
been very much abused by people who can afford to pay. 
It is the general rule in most hospitals that every physician 
and surgeon gives his or her time free in the hospital dis- 
pensary service for the poor. People should therefore 
not use the dispensary unless they are absolutely unable 
to pay a doctor. 



VIII. — EMERGENCIES. 

First Aid to the Injured. — Any one who is able to ren- 
der assistance to the injured is a valuable person in the 
community. It is often impossible to get a physician im- 
mediately and in many emergencies it is the treatment 
during the first five or ten minutes which determines the 
fate of the patient. 

Fainting. — This is due to a lack of blood in the brain. 
If the fainting occurs in a roomful of people, carry the person 
outside before beginning the treatment. Lay the patient 
flat on the floor or on a bench. Loosen the clothing about 
the neck and waist and open all doors and windows to insure 
fresh air. Bathe the face with cold water and give aromatic 
spirits of ammonia to inhale. A half teaspoonful of the 
aromatic spirits of ammonia in some cold water may be 
administered, or hot milk given to sip. Only a few people 
are needed to care for the patient. Do not crowd around, 
but go away if you cannot be of service. 

Burns. — If the clothing should catch fire do not run. 
Lie down on the floor and roll over and over. To assist 
another person, wrap him in a thick coat, a rug or a blanket 
and roll him on the floor. When the flames are put out, 
moisten the clothes with warm water and clip them away. 
Never tear the clothes off. Blisters may be opened with 
a clean needle which has been passed through a flame. 

225 



226 



COMMUNITY HYGIENE 



Burned surfaces must be kept from the air by using some 
greasy substance, such as vaseline or oil. Carron oil is 
made up of equal parts of linseed oil and lime water. A 
moist paste of baking-soda or plain lime water takes the 
sting out of a burn, or a cloth saturated in a solution of 
salt (one teaspoonful to the pint of water) may be used with 




FIRST AID TO THE INJURED IN A FIRE ACCIDENT. 

(Note that one of the injured has fainted .) 

great relief. Do not put cotton on a burn, but use old, 
clean linen cloths, gauze or pieces of lint. 

Wounds. — Allow them to bleed freely, as bleeding 
washes out any dirt which may be present. Wash with cold 
water or, if procurable, a solution of carbolic acid, one tea- 
spoonful to a pint of water. Draw edges of cuts together 



EMERGENCIES 



227 



with adhesive plaster and bandage the wound, 
ing, apply ice or very hot water. 



For bleed- 





W%iV 




mfC% h 








1 _J/^!^$J*»^-" e=r ^& =: 


_25^ 


m w 




5%J 


W TAv 







CLOSING THE EDGES OF A CUT WITH 
ADHESIVE PLASTER. 



Bruises or Contusions, — Bathe with very hot water 
to reduce the swelling. 
The hot water also helps to 
rid the skin of the dis- 
coloration due to broken 
blood vessels under the sur- 
face. 

Hemorrhage. — For nose- 
bleed, do not lie down; sit 
up in a chair. Hold the 
nose tight with one hand, 
and with the other, make 
pressure along the upper 
lip. Apply ice to the throat and back of the neck and 
ice-cold cloths to the nose. 

When an artery is cut the blood is bright red and spurts 
with each heart-beat. Blood from a vein flows continuously 
and is a dark purplish color. Make pressure on both sides 
of the wound, if possible. Tie a handkerchief tightly 

about the wound; run a stick 
through the knot and twist it 
to get greater pressure. This 
is what is called a tourniquet. 
The large arteries are found on 
the inside of the arm and leg 
and back of the knee. Raise 
the bleeding part if possible, and make pressure against 
the bones. 




3LRGJLON 3 KXOT. 



228 



COMMUNITY HYGIENE 



Sprains. — Raise the part; apply cracked ice in a towel, 
or hot water. Do not apply liniment or massage until the 
swelling begins to go down. 

Fractures or Broken Bones. — Keep the part at rest as 
much as possible. Fashion splints out of an umbrella, walk- 
ing-stick, a roll of newspapers, 
a branch of a tree or a fence- 
rail and tie on both sides of the 
limb with handkerchiefs above 
and below the fracture. If nec- 
essary carry the person 
carefully, until a doctor 
can be reached. 

Dislocations. — Sup- 
port the part; apply 
cold-water compresses. 
Pull on the part; the 
pulling may reduce the 
dislocation, but if not, 
it generally relieves the 
pain. 

Frostbite. — When 
any part of the body is frostbitten it becomes white and 
numb. Never take the sufferer into a warm room. Stay 
in a cool room or out-doors and rub the part with ice or 
snow. The inflammation and subsequent itching will be 
relieved by a solution of carbolic acid — one teaspoonful to 
a pint of cold water. 

Sunstroke. — In cases of sunstroke the face is very red 
and the skin hot and dry. Carry the patient into the shade. 




FIRST AID SPLINT DRESSING AND BANDAGING 
OF BROKEN ARM. 



EMERGENCIES 229 

Apply ice all over the body, especially to the head, and keep 
the patient quiet. 

Heat Exhaustion. — This condition is shown by a pale 
face, and a skin cold and moist to the touch. Put the 
patient in bed with blankets and hot-water bottles, and give 
stimulants and hot milk. Never apply ice and do not give 
alcohol. 

Drowning. — Recent experiments by Prof. Schaefer of 
Edinburgh, have shown that death is due not to water in 
the lungs but to heart failure. (See page 116 for Method of 
resuscitation.) 

Suffocation by Illuminating Gas or by Coal Gas. — Carry 
the person into the fresh air and begin artificial respiration 
as in drowning. (See page 116 for method of resuscitation) 
Use smelling salts ; apply a mustard plaster to the stomach 
and massage to the body generally. 

Intoxication. — This may be caused by too much alcohol 
in liquors or in patent medicines. The patient is semi- 
conscious, the breathing heavy, the face purple, and the 
eyes bloodshot. There is an odor of liquor in the breath. 
Give an emetic to empty the stomach, then give strong, 
black coffee and put to bed. 

Bites of Animals. — The bites of all animals should be 
cauterized, either with pure carbolic acid or a red-hot in- 
strument. If the animal is supposed to be mad, the phy- 
sician should arrange to have the patient vaccinated for 
hydrophobia. This is called the Pasteur treatment. An 
animal supposed to be mad should never be shot, but should 
be confined and kept under observation by a veterinary 
surgeon to ascertain whether hydrophobia is present or 
not. To overcome the struggles of such an animal, satu- 



230 COMMUNITY HYGIENE 

rate a cloth with ether or chloroform and drop it over the 
animal's head, covering it again with a coat. The animal 
will soon become unconscious. 

Bites of Poisonous Snakes. — Poisonous snakes in the 
United States include the rattlesnake, the copperhead, and 
the water moccasin. A bite from any one of these usually 
results in death in a few hours. The wound may be sucked 
if there is no abrasion of any kind on the lips or mouth, and 
the poison spit out on the ground. If the bite is on a limb, 
apply a tourniquet above the wound as tightly as possible, 
to prevent the circulation of the poison. Every twenty or 
thirty minutes the bandage may be slightly loosened, to 
allow a small quantity of the poison to escape into the 
circulation. The 




Fig. 1 05. — Hypodermic Syringe 



wound, which will «, 
show two small tP 
spots from the 
poison fangs, may 
be cauterized or may be freely opened so as to let out the 
poisons in the blood and lymph. Whisky and brandy 
as anti-toxins are now no longer recommended by the 
best authorities. A strong solution of permanganate of 
potash is the best remedy for neutralizing the poison. 
This may be applied to the wound, or better still injected 
around the wound by a hypodermic syringe. Many of 
the Canadian and Rocky Mountain guides now carry this 
remedy and the hypodermic case for use in snake bite. 

Bites of poisonous insects, such as mosquitoes, bees, 
wasps, and hornets, cause considerable pain and swelling 
but are not dangerous to life. Bathe in ammonia water or 
apply a paste of baking-soda. 



EMERGENCIES 231 

Choking. — Any foreign body lodging in the throat may 
be dislodged by a smart blow between the shoulder-blades, 
which will cause a blast of air to rush out from the lungs. 
Fishbones can often be carefully pulled out by a pair of 
forceps. If a pin should be swallowed, do not administer a 
purgative, but give a diet of mashed potatoes, bread, and 
hard-boiled eggs until the pin is passed by way of the 
rectum. This method prevents any injury to the intestine, 
by surrounding the swallowed object with a mass of soft 
material. 

Croup. — In young children croup shows itself by a hard, 
brassy cough, generally at night. Place the child without 
delay in a hot bath, or apply mustard plasters to the 
abdomen, and give an emetic, such as a teaspoonful of 
syrup of ipecac. 

Fits or Convulsions. — These are of many kinds : 1 . The 
epileptic fit is recognized by the patient's crying out and 
then falling unconscious. He moves his arms and legs 
aimlessly, bites his tongue, froths at the mouth and seems 
to be in pain, but in reality he is not suffering at all. 
Keep the patient lying down and quiet; place something 
in the mouth to prevent biting the tongue. Do not 
attempt to give any medicine. The attack is followed by 
a long sleep. 

2. A stroke of apoplexy usually comes only to the elderly. 
The face is purple, the breathing very loud and harsh, the 
person unconscious. Make the patient sit up and keep 
the neck straight. Apply ice to the head and heat to the 
feet. Call a physician at once. 

3. Hysteria. In a hysterical attack the patient is semi- 



232 COMMUNITY HYGIENE 

• 
conscious and the arms and legs may become very stiff 
and blue. Throw cold water on the head and face and 
speak very sharply. Do not sympathize. 

4. Spasms in children are caused by teething and indi- 
gestion. Put the child in as hot a bath as he can bear, 
apply ice to the head, or mustard plasters to the abdomen. 
Give a soapy water injection to move the bowels. 

Poisons. — For all poisons but acids and alkalies, give an 
emetic. An emetic is a substance which, when taken into 
the stomach, causes vomiting. Some common emetics are: 
Warm mustard water (one tablespoonful in a glass of 
water) followed by a quart of warm water; warm salt 
water, made in the same way. Tickling the throat with the 
finger or a feather hastens the desired results. 

Acids. — If there are stains or burns on the mouth or 
hands do not give an emetic but give immediately the 
antidote for an acid, which is an alkali, such as baking- 
soda, chalk, or soap. 

For carbolic acid give oil or milk, first; then, a table- 
spoonful of Epsom salts in a glass of warm water as an 
antidote. 

Arsenic is found in Paris green, rat poison, etc. In 
arsenic poisoning give an emetic and afterward plenty of 
milk and eggs. 

Phosphorus is found in the heads of matches. In phos- 
phorous poisoning give magnesia or chalk in water, followed 
by white of egg. 

In opium poisoning the person affected goes to sleep and 
cannot be awakened. Walk the patient up and down, 
slapping and pinching him. Give black coffee. (See page20?.) 



EMERGENCIES 



233 



Poisons from mushrooms (toadstools) berries, etc., may 
generally be treated by an emetic, followed by a purgative. 

Never eat strange ber- 
ries, leaves or roots, as 
there is always danger of 
poison. 

In the case of suscept- 
ible persons, certain 
trees and plants, such 
as poison-oak, poison- 
ivy, sumach, etc., will 
cause a poisoning of 
the system indicated by 
a rash of blisters with 
intense itching, and in 
some cases swelling, 
be distinguished from Virginia 




SOME POISONOUS MUSHROOMS. 

Showing the "veil of death" around the stem, 
the "poison bulb" of the root, the "leprous 
spots." the irregular or closed "gills." Any 
mushroom having one or more of these 
characteristics is surely piisonous, but not 
all of those without them are edible. 



Poison-ivy ma} 
creeper by the 
leaves having 
but three parts 
instead of five. 
Washing the 
face and hands 
with plenty of 
soap and leav- 
ing the lather 
on, will often 
allay the itching 
at once. If not, 
try pure grain- 
alcohol. 




234 COMMUNITY HYGIENE 

If the swelling and rash do not yield to this treatment, 
or if the eyes show the least sign of infection, a physician 
should be consulted at once. 

One of the strangest things about poison-ivy is that, 
while some persons are so susceptible that merely being 
in the vicinity or to windward of the plant is sufficient to 
produce the rash and swelling, others may handle the 
plant with apparent immunity. The safest plan, how- 
ever, is to learn to recognize the plant and then to avoid it. 



PART THREE 



THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 



THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 

PART THREE 

I— PHYSIOLOGY OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMc 

Sex Hygiene treats of the health of the reproductive 
system, and of the influences which make or mar the per- 
fect working of its various organs. It is intimately con- 
nected with all the other systems of the body, the general 
health of the individual depending very materially on the 
condition of the reproductive organs. 

Sex Organs. — The sex organs in the girl are the uterus 
and ovaries, all located deep down in the pelvis between 
the bladder and rectum. The ovaries are two small, solid 
organs, each one about the size of an almond, and composed 
of thousands of little egg cells. The uterus is a hollow, 
pear-shaped organ, lying between the ovaries and connected 
with them by two tubes, one on either side. 

Menstruation, — Various synonyms are used to denote 
menstruation; as, monthly sickness, period, being unwell, 
the menses. 

Menstruation is a periodic discharge of blood from the 
uterus and vagina occurring about every four weeks, and 
lasts from three to six days. Once a month, an egg cell 
becomes detached from one of the ovaries. It passes 

237 



238 



THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 



through the connecting tube into the uterus, there causing 
so much congestion that a flow of blood follows. This 
blood passes from the uterus through a passage-way called 
the vagina, and is expelled from the body. This entire 
process is called menstruation. It is established in girls 

at about four- 
teen years, in the 
beginning of the 
period of life 
called puberty, 
which lies be- 
tween fourteen 
and twenty 
years of age. 
The periods re- 
cur until the age 
of forty or forty- 
five years, the 
termination 
being called the 
menopause, or 
change of life. 
Menstruation is 
established ear- 
lier in city girls, and in girls who live in hot climates. 

After the establishment, the flow may be irregular for a 
year without giving cause for alarm, provided the general 
health is good. At the end of a year, however, if it is not 
regular, a physician should be consulted. 

When a girl begins to menstruate regularly, a change 
gradually comes over her. She looks different and she is 




Fig. t °6. — Female reproductive organs in longitudinal 
section of the body. A, anal opening; B, bladder; 
/, intestine; R, rectum; S, spinal column; U, uterus, 
V, vagina. 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 239 

different. She begins to put away childish things (her 
dolls, for instance) and to assume more womanly ways. 




Fig. 107. — Female reproductive organs. (Front sectional view). 
V, vagina; U, uterus; L, supporting ligaments; 0, ovary; Od, oviduct. 




Egg of mammal 

VARIOUS FORMS OF EGGS AND SPERMS. 



240 THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 

Until a girl has menstruated, she has no assurance that 
she is a perfect individual. Menstruation is the promise 
to her of possible motherhood. It ought to make a girl 
very happy to know that when she becomes older and 
marries, she will be able to bear a baby of her own, to love 
and to train, and she should never forget that the health 
of that future baby depends a great deal on the care she 
takes of her own health, especially during the years of 
puberty. 



II. — HYGIENE OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM. 

As menstruation is a perfectly natural process, a healthy 
girl should have no pain when the flow appears. The 
general symptoms are a dull, heavy feeling in the lower 
abdomen; slight backache, and general discomfort. 

Unfortunately, there are few perfectly healthy girls and 
women, so that all sorts of complications afflict many 
girls soon after puberty. Some of the special symptoms 
are sick headache, severe pain, drowsiness, nausea and 
vomiting, diarrhea and increased nervousness. 

The Flow. — At first, the flow is pale, then red, then pale 
again. There should be no clots. Sometimes there is a 
white discharge just before and after the flow. If this 
becomes very profuse, or continues between periods, con- 
sult a physician. 

Care during the Period. — The extra need for blood in 
the uterus during menstruation makes this organ a little 
heavier than usual, and takes blood away from other parts 
of the body. This is a physical drain on the system each 
month which requires some hygienic consideration. For 
her own protection and future good health, every girl 
should at this time rest a few days. If this is not possible 
the daily activities should be lessened. Taking a purg- 
ative the day before, and keeping the bladder well emptied, 
will render this trying time a little more comfortable. 
Avoid chilling of the body, vigorous exercise, and heavy 

241 



242 THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 

work, — especially lifting. Long walks, dancing, skating, 
sea-bathing, gymnasium work, riding horseback or a bicycle 
should be omitted. Exposure to cold, as in sleighing or 
coasting, is unwise; also, exposure to rain or dampness. 
There should be freedom from worry or excitement, and 
a reduced, plain diet. Rest an hour in the afternoon, 
and if the pain is very bad the first day, go to bed. 

For severe headache accompanied by pallor take aromatic 
spirits of ammonia, thirty drops in cold water, and place a 
hot bottle at the back of the neck. 

In case the flow should stop suddenly, go to bed and 
take hot drinks; apply mustard plasters to the back and 
abdomen, and hot- water bottles around the waist. 

Mental Work during Periods. — Mental work should 
be lightened as much as possible during the flow. Intel- 
lectual brilliancy is often won at the expense of a sound 
body. The blood supply which should go to the building 
up of a vigorous body is often perverted from its natural 
channels in the zeal of an ambitious girl to stand high in 
her classes, perhaps spurred on by her parents or friends. 
The too active brain steals the blood and energy which 
should be used for the development of the reproductive 
organs. In such a girl, the bust is flat and undeveloped, the 
body thin and angular, the hair scanty, and menstruation is 
apt to be painful. Under such conditions, all study or 
school work should be curtailed or stopped entirely, for six 
months or a year, until a readjustment can take place. 

Bathing during Periods. — It is particularly important 
to keep the body clean at such times. For this purpose, 
a daily warm sponge bath and a dry rub with a towel is 



HYGIENE OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 243 

sufficient. At least bathe the parts every night. Do not 
take a tub bath in hot or cold water, as the hot bath will 
increase the flow and the cold bath may stop it entirely. 

Sanitary Napkins. — Two or three napkins daily should 
be worn. The material should be soft and of good absorb- 
ent qualities. One of the simplest and best is of cheese- 
cloth, wrapped around a pad of cheap, absorbent cotton. 
When it is soiled, it can be burned, thus saving the expense 
of laundering. A material that washes well is the ordi- 
nary bird's eye diaper cloth, used in making diapers for 
babies. The napkin should be fastened securely to a waist 




women's dressing room in r. r. station or dept. store. 
(Xote the slot machine at the right with sanitary napkins.) 



band; it should be so fastened as to be easily removed, 
and should be changed often enough to insure comfort and 
to prevent a disagreeable odor, which too often can be 
detected on girls who are not particular about their 
persons. 



244 THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 

Keep the napkins in a bag by themselves, in a closet 
where no one can see them. Before sending them to the 
wash, soak them in cold water containing a handful of 
washing soda. Never leave them about and never make 
menstruation a subject of conversation. 

In emergencies sanitary napkins may be bought from 
a slot machine for five cents in all large department stores, 
railway stations, theaters, restaurants, etc. If absolutely 
necessary to change in a public dressing room, always hand 
the soiled napkin to the woman attendant; never throw 
it down the toilets. 

Public Water-Closets. — If it is necessary to use a pub- 
lic toilet, be very careful not to come in contact with the 
seat. A sheet of clean toilet paper may be spread on the 
seat; a better plan is not to sit down at all. Unfortunately 
every one is not clean or healthy and many diseases, some 
of them very disastrous in their after effects, may be con- 
tracted from the use of public toilets. 

A Bad Habit to Form. — Some girls get into the habit 
of taking hot whisky, brandy or gin for painful menstru- 
ation, even up to a stage of semi-drunkenness. This habit 
is mentioned only to be emphatically condemned, as both 
unwise and unnecessary. Many widely known patent 
medicines, advertised for painful menstruation, afford 
relief for the same reason — the high percentage of 
alcohol contained. Pain is overcome at the expense of 
sobriety and too often the alcohol habit' is thus formed, 
unconsciously. 

Scanty Menstruation. — Scanty or delayed menstruation 
may be caused by general ill health, acute illness, latent 



HYGIENE OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 245 

disease, anaemia or poor blood, confinement indoors, lack 
of exercise, exhausting mental work or study, poor food, 
etc. The remedy for this condition lies in the build- 
ing up of the body. Sunshine, fresh air, nourishing food, 
exercise, and plenty of sleep are the chief requisites for 
gaining increased vitality. 

Painful Menstruation. — This condition is generally the 
result of girls not knowing how to care for themselves 
at the very beginning of this period of sexual activity. 

Constipation is a frequent cause. Waste material col- 
lects in the large bowel, which if not evacuated every day, 
causes pressure on the blood vessels and nerves supplying 
the sexual organs. The normal and best time for a free evac- 
uation of the bowels, as stated before, is immediately after 
breakfast, and such a habit should be formed early in life. 

Improper attitudes in standing or sitting will cause all 
sorts of curvatures in the spinal column, such a condition 
being shown by a low shoulder or a high hip. This lack 
of symmetry causes unequal pressure on the nerves supply- 
ing the sex organs, and this mechanical interference of 
itself is sufficient to cause painful menstruation. 

The pressure of tight corsets on the abdominal organs causes 
them to be pushed downward so that their weight falls 
on the reproductive organs which are situated low down in 
the pelvis. Girls frequently complain of side ache, a dull 
pain in the soft part of the side, just above the hip bone. 
This pain is generally due to the sore, bruised end of a 
floating rib, which is demanding more room. These results 
of tight lacing largely account for the dragging feeling 
and the weary backache common to many women, especi- 
ally during menstruation. 



246 THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 

Excessive Menstruation. — This is generally due to the 
causes described under painful menstruation. The daily 
program during the month should be carefully considered 
and so changed as to be less vigorous and exhausting. As 
the period approaches, bodily activities should be less- 
ened, and during the period, rest on a couch or in bed is 
imperative especially during the first day or two. 

Sometimes the over supply of blood to the sexual organs 
is due to the excitement and emotional state brought on 
by reading sensational stories of love and passion, and by 
allowing the mind to dwell too much on thrilling and 
romantic episodes. We can control our thoughts and keep 
them pure and clean just as we can control the kind of 
books we read and the friends we select as our daily com- 
panions. 

Masturbation. — The secret of beauty lies in purity. 
Every girl wishes for beauty of face and grace of body. 
In the development of a girl during the years of puberty, 
the ovaries secrete a fluid called an "internal secretion" 
which is concerned in the great change of the girl into a 
woman. It transforms the thin, awkward, scrawny little 
girl, with flat chest, skinny arms and scanty hair into a 
graceful young woman, with abundant, glossy hair, 
rounded bosom, rosy cheeks, sparkling eyes, and fine 
figure. 

The loss of this vital fluid means the loss of health, beauty, 
and womanly charm, and is a very great calamity. Some- 
times, because of irritation in the outer sexual organs, or 
because of the promptings of an impure-minded playmate, 
a girl will handle or play with these delicate organs. 
Such improper handling is called masturbation, and any 



HYGIENE OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 247 

such excitation causes the vital fluid to flow from the 
ovaries and be lost. The effects on the body and mind 
are marked, for Nature punishes wrongdoing with a heavy 
hand, — in this case by loss of health, strength, and 
beauty, with great injury to the nervous system, while 
the whole moral tone is lowered. Even after this danger- 
ous habit is broken, it is many months before the body 
can be wholly restored to its normal condition. Insanity 
not infrequently results from this practice. 

Friendships. — In choosing girl friends, select those who 
are sweet, natural, and refined in both manners and con- 
versation. Never choose one who whispers things that 
"You must not tell your mother," but rather choose that 
girl who makes a friend and confidante of her mother. 
Anything not fit for a mother's ears is certainly not fit 
for her daughter's. 

It is better to have many friends rather than just one 
special friend. Two girls sometimes have " secrets" which 
make mischief later. It is better to sleep at home, and not 
make a practice of spending the night with other girls, 
who sometimes talk of things they would not mention 
except under the cover of darkness. If a girl has a group 
of friends, there is less likelihood of unwise familiarity at 
any time. 

Choose for boy friends those who are intelligent, 
manly, and jolly, but never familiar. Let them understand 
they are to be good comrades, not sweethearts. They 
should be invited to a girl's home to see her when they 
can also meet her father and mother. Never be guilty of 
following after a boy; let him do the seeking. The one 
great rule to be observed in dealing with boys is " Hands 



24 8 THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 

Off!" Be good chums, but never permit anything even 
approaching familiarity, much less kissing and hugging. 
No girl will ever be sorry for keeping strictly to this rule. 
Boys may try to overcome a girl's scruples, but in their 
hearts they respect and admire and honor in their con- 
versation the girl who respects herself and keeps them at 
a proper distance. 



INDEX 



Abductor muscles, 6. 
Absorption of food, 63. 
Accidents, treatment for, 225, 233. 
Accommodation of eye, 162. 
Acetanilide, 218. 
Achilles, tendon, 50. 
Acids, 167, 232. 
Adam's apple, no. 
Adductor muscles, 6. 
Adenoids, 67. 

Results of, 68. 

Signs of, 68. 
Adipose tissue, 3. 
Adulteration of foods, 80. 
Air, foul, 121. 

Impurities in, 121, 122. 

Night, 122. 
Air-cells, 112. 
Albino, 161. 
Albumen, 74. 
Alcohol, 204, 209. 

And crime, 213. 

And heredity, 212. 

Effect on character, 211. 

Effect on heart, 211. 

Effect on kidneys, 21 1. 

Effect on lun^s, 211 

Effect on nervous system, 211. 

Experiment, 169. 

Poisoning by, 210. 
Alcoholic drinks, 210. 
Alimentary canal. 54. 
Alkali, 167, 232. 
Ambulance, 224. 
Amoeba, 2. 

Anatomy, meaning of, 1. 
Anaemic headache, 148. 
Anaesthesia, 208. 
Ankle, bones of, 15. 
Anopheles mosquito, 182. 
Anthrax, 173, 187. 



Antidote, 232. 
Antiseptics, 178. 
Antitoxin, 108, 202. 
Aorta, 98. 
Apoplexy, 231. 
Appendicitis, 60. 
Appendix, vermiform, 59. 
Aqueous humor, 160. 
Arachnoid, 133. 
Arsenic poisoning, 232. 
Arteries, 99, 227. 
Artificial respiration, 116. 
Asphyxia, 229. 
Astigmatism, 162. 
Auditory canal, 156. 
Auditory nerves, 136, 155. 
Auricles, 98. 

Backbone, 15. 
Bacteria, useful, 174. 

Disease producing, 103, 175. 

In air, 128, 176. 

In blood, 176. 

In milk, 90, 179. 

In mouth, 198. 

In soil, 188. 

In water, 178, 179. 

Killing of, 177. 
Bacterins, 108. 
Baldness, 40. 
Bathing, 31. 

Sea, 35. 
Bathroom, 32. 
Baths, classification of, 33. 
Beans, 74. 
Beef tea, 92. 
Beer, 210. 
Beverages, 86, 91. 
Bicuspid tooth, 56. 
Bile, 63. 
Biliousness, 72. 



249 



250 



INDEX 



Blackheads, 29. 


Carbohydrates, 74. 


Bladder, 24. 


Carbolic acid, 232. 


Bleeding, 106. 


Carbon dioxide, 112, 119, 


Blisters, 234. 


Test for, 170. 


Blood, corpuscles of, 96, 97. 


Carbon monoxide, 122. 


Clotting of, 97. 


Carron oil, 226. 


Plasma, 96. 


Cartilage, 3, 17, 18. 


Purification of, 104, 112. 


Casein, 74. 


Serum, 97. 


Catarrh, 125. 


Blood vessels, 95. 


Cellar, 123. 


Blushing, 137. 


Cell division, 2. 


Boards of Health, 221. 


Cells, 2. 


Boils, 197. 


Cereals, 78. 


Bone, composition of, 16. 


Cerebellum, 133, 134, 138 


Structure of, 16. 


Cerebrum, 133, 134, 137. 


Bones, development of, 17. 


Certified milk, 88. 


Diseases of, 18. 


Cheese, 74, 78. 


Dislocation of, 22. 


Chewing gum, 70. 


Fracture of, 20. 


Chloral, 208. 


Of ear, 156. 


Chloride of lime, 178. 


Bowels, regulation of, 73, 82, 245. 


Chloroform, 208. 


Brain, 133. 


Chocolate, 91. 


Exercise of, 139. 


Cholera, 173, 176. 


Brandy, 210. 


Chorea, 144. 


Bread, 79. 


Choroid coat, 159. 


Breakfast foods, 78. 


Cigarettes, 205. 


Menus, 84. 


Cilia or ciliums, 109, ill. 


Breathing, 112. 


Circulation of blood, ioi. 


Varieties of, 1 16. 


Circulatory system, 95. 


Bright's disease, 21 1. . 


Clothes, tight, 49. 


Broken bones, 20, 228. 


Wet, 47. 


Bronchi, m. 


Clothing, 44. 


Bronchial tubes, III. 


Clotting, 97. 


Bronchitis, 124. 


Coagulation, 97, 165. 


Bruises, 106. 


Coal gas, 122. 


Bubble fountains, 198. 


Cocaine, 208, 218. 


Bubonic plague, 186. 


Coccyx, 16. 


Bunion, 30, 50. 


Cochlea, 156. 


Burns, 225. 


Cocoa, 91. 


Butter, 75. 


Coffee, 92. 


Butterine, 75. 


Colds, 125. 


Buttermilk, 88. 


Prevention of, 127. 




Treatment of, 126. 




Color, 60. 


Caffeine, 92. 


Color of skin, 28. 


Callus, 51. 


Complexion, 28, 29. 


Canal Zone, 184. 


Condensed milk, 88. 


Cancerous tissue, 30. 


Condiments, 155. 


Canine teeth, 56. 


Congestive headache, 148. 


Capillaries, 95. 


Connective tissue, 3. 



INDEX 



251 



Constipation, 73. 82, 24;. 

Diet for, 82. 
Consumption, see tuberculosis. 
Contagious diseases, 175. 
Contraction of muscles, 6. 
Convolutions of brain, 134. 
Convulsions, 232. 
Cooking, 81. 
Corns, 30, 50. 

Treatment of, 31, 53. 
Cornea, 159. 
Corpuscles, 96, 97. 
Corsets, tight, 9, 114, 242. 
Coryza, 1 24. 
Cotton clothes, 45. 
Coughing, 116. 
Covvpox, 210. 
Crabs, 76. 

Cramp, bathers', 37. 
Cranial nerves, 134, 135. 
Cream, 75. 
Croup, 231. 
Crowd poison, 121. 
Crystalline lens, 160. 
Culex mosquito, 182. 
Curvature of spine, 21. 
Cuts, 226. 

Dandruff, 39. 
Deafness, 67. 
Debutante slouch, 114. 
Dentine, 56. 
Dermis, 25. 
Diaphragm, 112. 
Diarrhea, diet for, 82. 
Diet, 79. 
Digestion, intestinal, 63. 

Stomach, 62. 
Digestive organs, 54. 
Diphtheria, 69. 
Disease, cause of, 173. 

Contagious, 175. 

Infectious, 175. 

Prevention of, 177. 
Disinfectants, 178. 
Disinfection, 178. 
Dislocation, 22. 
Dispensary, 224. 
Distillation, 209. 
Dreams, 143. 



Drinking cups and disease, 197. 
Drowning, treatment for, 116. 
Drum of ear, 156. 
Duodenum, 59. 
Dust, 127. 
Dura mater, 133. 

Ear, 155. 

Care of, 157. 
Earache, 158. 
Ear drum, 156. 
Ear wax, 157. 
Eggs, 78. 
Emergencies, 225. 

Apoplexy, 231. 

Asphyxia, 231. 

Bleeding, 106, 227. 

Broken bones, 228. 

Burning clothing, 225. 

Burns, 226. 

Choking, 231. 

Coal gas, 122. 

Contusions, 227. 

Croup, 231. 

Dislocation of bones, 228. 

Drowning, 229. 

Electric shock, 116. 

Fainting, 225. 

Fits, 231. 

Fractures, 228. 

Frozen limbs, 228. 

Heat exhaustion, 229. 

Hemorrhage, 106, 227. 

Hydrophobia, 229. 

Hysteria, 231. 

Intoxication, 229. 

Poisoning, 232. 

Snake bites, 230. 

Sprains of joints, 228. 

Stings, 230. 

Suffocation, 229. 

Sunstroke, 228. 

Wounds, 226. 
Emetics, 232. 
Emulsion, 63. 
Enamel, 56. 
Epidermis, 25. 
Epiglottis, 57, in. 
Epilepsy, 212, 231. 
Epithelium, 3. 



t$2 



INDEX 



Ether, 160. 


Fur, 45. 




Eustachian tubes, no. 






Excretions, 23. 


Gall bladder, 60. 




Excretory system, 23. 


Games, value of, 9. 




Exercise, 7. 


Garbage cans, 181. 




Experiments, 165. 


Gastric glands, 5.8. 




Expirations, 113. 


Germs in air, 128, 176. 




Extensor muscles, 6. 


In water, 178, 179. 




Eye, 158. 


In milk, 90, 179. 




Eyeball, 159. 


Of disease, 173. 




Eyes, care of, 163. 


Germicides, 178. 




Testing, 161. 


Glands, digestive, 58, 60. 
Enlargement of, 103. 




Face, muscles of, 139. 


Intestinal, 59. 




Fainting, 225. 


Salivary, 56. 




Farsightedness, 162. 


Sebaceous, 26. 




Fat cells, 3. 


Sweat, 26. 




Making of, 74. 


Thyroid, 95. 




Use of, 74. 


Glasses, 163. 




Fatigue, n, 140, 149. 


Glosso-pharyngeal nerves, 


136, 153 


Fermentation, 209. 


Gluten, 74. 




Fibrin, 97. 


Glycogen, 62. 




Filter, 179. 


Goitre, 62. 




Filtration of water, 177, 179. 


Goose flesh, 38. 




First aid, 225. 


Grape sugar test, 167. 




Fissures of brain, 134. 


Growth of muscles, 7. 




Fits, 231. 


Grippe, 125. 




Flat foot, 52. 


Gustatory nerve, 136. 




Fletcherize, 70. 


Gymnasium, 10. 




Flexor muscles, 6. . 






Flies and disease, 180. 


Habits, 138. 




Focus, 161. 


Hair, 26. 




Food and drugs act, 220. 


Care of, 38, 40. 




Food, adulteration of, 80, 81. 


Dyes, 40. 




Classification, 73, 76. 


Superfluous, 29. 




Cooking of, 81. 


Hang nail, 44. 




Digestion of, 62. 


Hasheesh, 208. 




Poisoning, 84. 


Havana, 183. 




Preservation of, 83. 


Haversian canals, 17. 




Special, 82. 


Headache, 148. 




Formaldehyde, 178. 


Treatment of, 150. 




Formalin, 178. 


Hearing, 155. 




Foul air, 121. 


Heart, 98. 




Fracture of bones, 20, 228. 


Disease, 106. 




Freckles, 29. 


Heat exhaustion, 229. 




Fresh air and disease, 114, 119. 


Heating rooms, 123. 




Fresh air schools, 199. 


Hemoglobin, 96. 




Friendships, 244, 245. 


Hemorrhage, 106. 




Frost bite, 228. 


Heredity, 191, 212. 




Fruits, 80. 


Hiccoughing, 116. 





INDEX 



*53 



Hip bone, 15. 

Hip joint disease, 192. 

Hoarseness, III, 124, 193, 205. 

Hookworm disease, 188. 

Hospital, 224. 

Host, 181. 

Humors of eye, 160. 

Hunch back, 19. 

Huxley, 2. 

Hydrophobia, 187. 

Hygiene, I. 

Hypodermic injection, 230. 

Hypoglossal nerves, 136, 153. 

Hysteria, 231. 

Ileum, 59. 

Immunity, 200, 203. 
Incisors, 55. 
Index, 249. 
Indigestion, 69. 
Infectious diseases, 175. 
Inflammation, 107. 
Influenza, 125. 
Inoculation, 210. 
Insect stings, 230. 
Insects and disease, 180. 
Inspiration, 113. 
Intestinal juice, 63. 
Intestines, movements of, 63. 

Structure, 59. 
Intoxication, 204, 210. 
Involuntary muscles, 6. 
Iris, 159. 
Ivy poisoning, 234. 

Jaundice, 72. 
Jejunum, 59. 
Jenner, 200. 
Joints, 17. 

Classification of, 18. 

Dislocation of, 22. 

Kidneys, 23. 

Koch, Dr. Robert, 189- 

Lacing, tight, 1 14, 242. 
Lacteals, 63. 
Larynx, no. 
Laryngitis, 124. 
Laudanum, 207. 



Laveran, 181. 
Lice, in hair, 42. 
Ligaments, 18. 
Lightning stroke, 116. 
Lime, chloride of, 178. 
Liver, 60. 
Lobsters, 76. 
Lockjaw, 221. 
Luncheon menus, 85. 
Lungs, in. 

Diseases of, 124, 189. 

Exercising, 113, 114. 
Lymph, 102. 
Lymphatics, 102. 
Lymph glands, 103. 

Malaria, 181. 

Malleus, 156. 

Malt liquors, 210. 

Marrow, 97. 

Massage, 12. 

Mastication, 70. 

Masturbation, 243. 

Measles, 173, 175. 

Meat, 76. 

Medulla oblongata, 133, 135. 

Meningitis, 191. 

Menopause, 236. 

Menstruation, 235. 

Excessive, 242. 

Painful, 241. 

Scanty, 241. 
Menus, 84, 85. 
Microbes, 173. 
Microscope, 163, 173. 
Milk, care of, 90. 

Diseases carried by, 90. 

Food Values, 86, 87. 

Germs in, 90. 

Inspection, 90. 

Pasteurization of, 89. 
Milk teeth, 55. 
Modified milk, 88. 
Molar teeth. 56. 
Mold, 165. 
Moles, 30. 
Morphine, 207. 
Mosquitoes and disease, 181. 
Motor nerves, 135. 
Mouth, 54. 



*54 



INDEX 



Mouth breathing, 68. 

Mucous membrane, 109, III. 

Mucus, 109 

Mumps, 57. 

Muscles, classification of, 6. 

Involuntary, 6. 

Voluntary, 5. 
Muscular sense, 152. 
Mushrooms, poisonous, 233. 

Nails, 27. 

Care of, 42, 44. 
Narcotics, 204. 
Nasal, passages, 109. 
Nearsightedness, 161. 
Nerve cell, 2, 135. 
Nerve endings, 151. 
Nerves, cranial, 135. 

Motor, 135. 

Sensory, 135. 

Spinal, 135. 

Sympathetic, 137. 

Thermic, 151. 
Nerve tissue, 3, 134, 136. 
Nervousness, 144. 
Nervous system, 133. 
Nicotine, 204. 
Night air, 122, 182. 
Nose, 109. 
Nucleus, 2. 
Nuts, 80. 

Oatmeal, 78. 

Occupational diseases, 189, 213. 

Oesophagus, 58. 

Oils, 74. 

Oleomargarine, 74. 

Olfactory nerve, 135, 154. 

Opium, 206, 217, 232. 

Optic nerve, 135, 159. 

Orbit, 158. 

Organs, 4. 

Ovaries, 235. 

Overweight, 85. 

Oxygen, 96, 97, 112. 

Oysters, 76. 

Pain, 152. 
Palate, 57. 
Palpitation of heart, 205. 



Panama Canal, 184. 

Pancreas, 62. 

Pancreatic juice, 62, 63. 

Papilla of skin, 25, 26. 

Papillae or papillas of tongue, 15 J, 

Paralysis, 231. 

Parasites, 77, 187. 

Paregoric, 207. 

Parotid gland, 57. 

Pasteur, Dr. Louis, 89, 173. 

Pasteurization of milk, 89. 

Patent medicines, 214. 

Peas, 74. 

Pediculosis, 42. 

Pepsin, 62. 

Peptones, 58, 62. 

Periosteum, 16. 

Peristalsis, 63. 

Perspiration, 66. 

Phagocytes, 96. 

Pharyngitis, 124. 

Pharynx, 57, no. 

Openings into, 57. 
Phosphorus, 232. 
Physiology, 1 . 
Pia mater, 133. 
Piles, 60. 
Pimples, 29. 
Pink-eye, 187. 
Pitch of voice, in. 
Pituitary body, 95. 
Plasma, 96. 
Play, 9. 
Pleura, in. 
Pleurisy, 124. 

Pneumogastric nerves, 136. 
Pneumonia, 124. 
Poisoning, food, 149. 
Poisonous plants, 233. 
Poisons, remedies for, 232. 
Portal circulation, 102. 
Position, correct, 21. 
Potassium permanganate, 230. 
Potts' disease, 19. 
Preservation of food, 83. 
Pressure sense, 152. 
Proteids, 140. 

Test for, 167. 
Protoplasm, 2. 
Ptomaine poisoning, 149. 



INDEX 



255 



Ptomaines, 84. 

Pulmonary circulation, 101. 

Pulse, 98. 

Pupil, 159* 

Purification of blood, 104, 112. 

Pus, 96. 

Quack medicines, 214. 
Quarantine, 223. 

Reaction, 35. 
Rectum, 60. 
Red blood cells, 96. 
Reflex action, 138. 
Refrigerator, 83. 
Relaxation, 147. 
Respiration, 112. 

Artificial, 116. 

Diseases of, 123. 
Respiratory system, 109. 
Rest, 141, 150. 
Retina, 159. 
Rheumatism, 22. 
Ribs, 15. 
Rice, 78. 
Rickets, 18. 
Rising, 143. 
Round shoulders, 8. 

Sacrum, 16. 
Saliva, 56. 
Salivary glands, 56. 
Sanitary napkins, 239. 
Sanatorium, 198, 199, 224. 
Scalp. 38. 
Scar, 29. 

Scarlet fever, 173, 175. 
Sclerotic coat, 159. 
Scrofula, 192. 
Sebaceous glands, 26. 
Semicircular canals, 156. 
Sensation, general, 147. 
Sense of hearing, 155. 

Muscular, 152. 

Of pain, 152. 

Of pressure, 151. 

Of sight, 158. 

Of smell, 153. 

Of taste, 153. 



Of temperature, 151. 

Of touch, 151. 
Sensory nerves, 135. 
Serum of blood, 97. 
Sex hygiene, 235. 

Organs, 235. 
Shampoo, 39. 
Shoes, 50. 
Sick headache, 150. 
Sight, 158. 
Silk, 45. 
Skeleton, 15. 
Skim milk, 88. 
Skin, care of, 27. 

Structure of, 25. 
Skull, 15. 
Sleep, 141. 

Sleeping sickness, 187. 
Small intestine, 59. 
Smallpox, 200. 
Smell, 153. 
Smoking, 205. 
Snake bites, 230. 
Sneezing, 116. 
Snoring, 116. 
Soothing syrups, 217. 
Sound, 156. 
Spinal column, 15. 

Cord, 16, 135. 

Nerves, 135. 
Spitting, 130, 131. 
Spleen, 95. 
Spores, 174. 
Sprains, 22. 
Sputum, 196. 

Cups, 196. 
Standing position, 8. 
Stapes, 156. 
Starch, 74. 
Starvation, 74. 
Stegomyia, 183. 
Sterilization, 178. 
Stimulants, 91. 
Stings, 230. 
Stomach, 58. 
Strain, 22. 
Street cleaning, 223. 
Substitutes for meat, 78. 
Suffocation, £29, 
Sugar, 74. 



256 



INDEX 



Sunstroke, 228. 
Supra-renal capsule, 95* 
Swimming, 37. 
Sympathetic nerves, 137. 
Systemic circulation, 101. 
Systems, 4. 

Circulatory, 95. 

Digestive, 54. 

Excretory, 23. 

Muscular, 5. 

Nervous, 133. 

Osseous, 15. 

Reproductive, 235. 

Respiratory, 109. 

Sympathetic, 137, 138. 

Tannin, 92. 
Tapeworm, 97. 
Tartar, 66. 
Taste, 153. 
Tea, 91. 
Tears, 159. 
Teeth, 54. 

Composition of, 56. 

Care of, 64. 
Temperature, regulation of, 27. 

Sense, 151. 
Tendon, 6. 
Testimonials, 216. 
Tetanus, 221. 
Thoracic duct, 63. 
Throat, 67. 
Thyroid gland, 95. 
Tissues, classification < 1. z. 

Connective, 3. 

Cartilaginous, 3. 

Epithelial, 3. 

Muscular, 3. 

Nervous, 3. 

Nutritive, 4. 

Osseous, 3. 
Tobacco, 204. 
Tongue, 54. 
Tonsilitis, 67, 124. 
Tonsils, 57, no. 
Toothache, 56. 
Touch, 151. 
Toxines, 175. r 

Trachea, ill. 
Trichina, 77. 



Trichinosis, 77, 187. 
Tricuspid tooth, 56. 
Tuberculosis, 

Cards, 131, 132. 

Causes, 189. 

Deaths from, 189. 

Forms of, 192. 

Germs of, 125. 

Of bones, 19. 

Prevention of, 196. 

Symptoms of, 192. 

Treatment of, 194. 
Typhoid fever, 178. 

Prevention of, 179. 

Uncinariasis, 188. 
Underclothes, 45. 
Underweight, 86. 
Urea, 27. 
Ureter, 24. 
Urethra, 24. 
Urine, 24. 
Uterus, 235. 
Uvula, no. 



Vaccination, 200. 

For typhoid fever, 
Vaccines, 108, 201. 
Vacuum cleaner, 129. 
Vagina, 236. 
Valgus, 51. 
Valves of heart, 98. 
Vegetables, 79. 
Veils, 164. 
Veins, 101. 
Venous blood, 97. 
Venus de Milo, 47. 
Ventilation, 119. 
Ventricle of heart, 98. 
Vertebrae, 15. 
Villi or Villuses, 59, 63. 
Vitreous humor, 160. 
Vocal cords, in. 



Wart, 30. 

Water, filtration of, 177, 179. 

Germs in, 176 178. 

Value of, 75. 



INDEX 



257 



Water-closet, 241. 
White blood cells, 96. 
Whooping cough, 173 
Wigglers, 182. 
Windpipe, ill. 
Wines, 210. 



Wood alcohol, 209. 
Woolen clothes, 45. 
Worry, 140. 



Yeast, 210. 
Yellow fever, 



183. 



IT 18 1913 



